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PEINCETON,  N.  J. 

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Section  ., A (.*-?.Jfc-. 

Number 

MEN  OF 

THE  BIBLE. 

Under  an  arrangement  with  the  En^  ish  pub- 
lishers, Messrs.  A.  D.  F.  Randolph  &  Co. 
will  issue  a  series  of  volumes  by  distinguished 
scholars,  on 

THE   MEN   OF   THE   BIBLE. 

ABRAHAM  :    HIS    LIFE  AND    TIMES.     By  the 

Rev.  W.  J.  Deane,  M.A. 
MOSES :   HIS   LIFE  AND  TIMES.     By  the  Rew, 

Canon  G.  Rawlinson,  M.A. 
SOLOMON  :  HIS  LIFE  AND  TIMES.   By  the  Veo. 

Archdeacon  Farrar,  D.D. 
ISAIAH  :   HIS  LIFE  AND  TIMES.     By  the  Rey. 

Cajion  S.  R.  Driver,  M.A. 
Sj\MUEL  AND    SAUL:     THEIR    LIVES    AND 

TIMES.    By  Rev.  William  J.  Dean,  M.A. 

JEREMIAH:    HIS  LIFE   AND  TIMES.    By  the 

Rev.  Canon  T.  K.  Cheyne,  M.A. 
JESUS  THE  CHRIST  :    HIS  LIFE  AND  TIMES 

By  the  Rev.  F.  J.  Vallings,  M.A. 
ELIJAH  :  HIS  LIFE  AND  TIMES.    By  the  Re^ 

W.  MlLIJGAN,   D.D. 
DANIEL  :  HIS  LIFE  AND  TIMES.  By  H.  Deane, 

B.D. 
DAVID  :   HIS  LIFE  AND  TIMES.     By  Rev.  Wm. 

J.  Deane,  M.A. 
KINGS  OF  ISRAEL  AND  JUDAH.     By  the  Rev. 

Canon  G.  Rawlinson,  M.A. 

7b  M^  student  and  tke  general  reader  thest 
volumes  will  be  found  alike  useful  and  inter-^ 
estingy  a  fid  the  question  may  well  be  asked,  why 
the  ifitelligent  reader  shotild  not  find  the  liveh 
of  the  great  men  of  the  Bible  as  usefitl  or  as 
fascinating  as  the  story  of  those  who  have  won 
a  conspicuous  place  i)i  the  annals  of  secular 
history.  And  yet  how  indifferent  thousands  oj 
cultivated  persons  are  to  these  lives,  save  only 
as  they  are  recorded  in  outlijie  in  the  Holy 
Scriptures.     Price,  $i.oo  each. 

*^*  Sent  by  mail  on  receipt  of  price. 

ANSON  D.  F.  RANDOLPH  &  COMPANY, 

38  WEST  TWENTY-THIRD  STRI-.ET,   N.  Y 


JOSHUA: 

HIS  LIFE  AND  TIMES. 


REV.   WILLIAM   J.   DEANE,   M.A. 


RECTOR   OF  ASHEN,    ESSEX. 


NEW  YORK: 
ANSON  D.  F.  RANDOLPH  &  COMPANY, 

38  WEST  TWENTY-THIRD  STREET. 


PREFACE. 


The  materials  for  the  Life  of  Joshua  are  found  in  the  Book 
which  bears  his  name,  in  portions  of  the  Pentateuch,  and  some 
scattered  notices  in  the  rest  of  Scripture  and  the  Apocrypha. 
Josephus  and  Rabbinical  traditions  add  little  of  any  value,  and 
the  Samaritan  Book  of  Joshua  is  a  compilation  of  the  thirteenth 
century  altogether  untrustworthy  and  useless  for  historical  pur- 
poses. The  "  Records  of  the  Past "  afford  a  curious  commentary 
on  our  Book  in  the  account  of  the  travels  of  an  Egyptian  officer 
through  Palestine  shortly  before  the  Jewish  invasion.  A  large 
number  of  the  places  visited  by  him  are  easily  identified,  and 
the  notices  of  the  towns  and  the  state  of  the  country  are  full  of 
interest  and  instruction. 

I  have  not  thought  it  necessary,  nor  have  I  space,  to  burden 
my  pages  with  controversial  matter.  The  careful  reader,  how- 
ever, will  gather  that  I  have  endeavoured  virtually  to  reply  to 
theoretical  fancies  by  the  statement  of  assured  facts.  When  the 
critics  are  agreed  among  themselves  as  to  the  age,  date,  and 
distribution  of  the  several  parts  of  what  they  call  the  Hexateuch, 
it  will  be  time  to  see  how  far  we  have  to  modify  old  opinions. 
A  comparative  analysis  of  its  treatment  by  four  great  German 
critics  (not,  however,  including  Dillmann's  last  essay,  1886)  may 
be  seen  in  Ladd's  "  Doctrine  of  Sacred  Scripture,"  i.  517  ff. 
This  is  most  instructive  and  perplexing. 

To  the  many  commentaries  on  Joshua  I  owe  much  assistance ; 
the  most  useful,  perhaps,  are  those  of  Dillmann,  in  "  Kurzge- 
fasstes  exegetisches  Handbuch "  (1886),  and   Dr.    Maclear  in 


IV  PREFACE. 

"  The  Cambridge  Bible  for  Schools."  As  it  is  impossible  to 
understand  or  appreciate  this  Book  without  an  accurate  know- 
ledge of  geographical  details,  I  have  endeavoured  to  embody  in 
my  account  the  latest  identifications  of  Biblical  sites,  and  have 
been  fain  to  add  reality  to  my  descriptions  by  inserting  the 
actual  words  of  recent  travellers.  To  increase  the  utility  of  my 
little  work,  and  to  make  it  in  some  sort  a  handbook  of  Scrip- 
tural topography,  I  have  appended  a  geographical  index. 

Oct.,  1889.  W.  J,  D. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

PAGE 

Earlier  Years i 

First  appearance  of  Joshua  in  history  ;  his  name  and  paren- 
tage —  The  minister  of  Moses  —  Jealousy  for  his  master's 
honour — Sent  as  one  of  the  twelve  spies  ;  his  report — Lessons  in 
the  wilderness— Appointed  successor  of  Moses— Death  of  Moses 
— Phoenicians,  Hittites,  and  Canaanites  ;  their  religion  and  moral 
degradation — Different  views  concerning  the  settlement  of  Israel 
in  Palestine— The  destruction  of  the  Canaanites  considered  ;  the 
Israelites'  part  therein— Joshua  encouraged. 

CHAPTER  II. 

Jordan  Crossed iS 

Canaan  described— Encampment  at  Shittim— Number  of  the 
people  ;  their  character  and  spirit— Joshua's  plan  of  campaign-— 
Jericho  ;  spies  sent  thither — Rahab — Escape  of  the  spies  and  their 
covenant  with  Rahab  ;  their  report— Preparation  for  crossing  the 
Jordan— Appeal  to  the  two-and-a-half  tribes— The  miraculous 
passage  of  the  river — A  possible  explanation — Memorials  of  the 
event — Circumcision  renewed — The  Passover  celebrated. 

CHAPTER   III. 

Jericho  Captured 3^ 

The  capture  of  Jericho  necessary— Joshua  encouraged  by  a  reve- 
lation—Scriptural Theophanies— Investment  of  Jericho  by  a  reli- 
gious ceremony— The  number  seven — Miraculous  fall  of  the  city  ; 
its  destruction — The  ban — The  curse  on  Jericho — Fate  and  cha- 
racter of  Rahab. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

First  Check— its  Cause  and  Removal 50 

Ai — Israelites  defeated — Rending  of  clothes  in  token  of  grief — 
Joshua's  complaint — The  sin  indicated  ;  fixed  on  Achan — The 
punishment  of  the  criminal  in  the  Valley  of  Acli or— Successful 
attack  on  Ai,  and  destruction  of  the  city — Fate  of  Bethel. 


VI  ^  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  V. 

PAGS 

The  Law  set  up  in  Canaan 62 

Injunction  of  Moses  ;  its  import — Pilgrimage  to  Shechem — Ebal 
and  Gerizim,  and  the  Vale  of  Shechem — T'he  altar  of  unhewn 
stones  erected — Inscription  on  stones — The  blessing  and  the 
cursing, 

CHAPTER  VI. 

Conquest  of  the  South 71 

Gibeon  and  its  confederate  cities,  Beeroth,  Kirjath-jearim,  and 
Chephirah — Stratagem  of  the  Gibeonites  ;  its  success  ;  their  des- 
tiny— Five  kings  combine  to  attack  Gibeon — Jerusalem — Jarmuth 
— ^Joshua  marches  to  relieve  Gibeon — Battle  of  Beth-horon — 
Hailstorm — The  daylight  lengthened — The  miracle  considered — 
Defeat  of  the  Canaanites — Azekah  ;  Makkedah — Humiliation 
and  execution  of  the  kings — The  southern  campaign — Conquest 
of  Makkedah  ;  Libnah  ;  Lachish  ;  Gezer ;  Eglon  ;  Hebron  ;  Debir 
—The  Hills— The  Negeb— The  Shephelah— The  Slopes— Kadesh- 
barnea — Goshen — The  dispossession  only  partial. 

CHAPTER  VII. 
Conquest  of  the  North        ........      98 

Confederacy  formed  in  the  North— Jabin — Waters  of  Merom — 
Hazor — The  confederate  cities  and  tribes  ;  Madon  ;  Shimron  ; 
Achshaph  ;  Dor — Canaanile  cavalry  and  chariots — Kadesh — 
Joshua  makes  a  forced  march  ;  defeats  the  Canaanites  at  Merora 
— Sidon — Misrephoth-Maim — Treatment  of  horses — Hazor  de- 
stroyed— Conquest  gradually  completed — Anakim — Hardening  of 
the  heart — General  survey  of  the  conquest — Eastern  Palestine — 
Extent  of  West  territory — Baal-Gad — Mount  Halak — List  of  con- 
quered kings — Geder  ;  Hormah  ;  Arad  ;  Adullam  ;  Taanach  ; 
Megiddo  ;  Jokneam  ;  Carmel  ;  Gilgal  ;  Tirzah — Unconquered  ter- 
ritory— The  Philistines  ;  Geshurites  ;  river  of  Egypt ;  Phoenicia  ; 
Mearah  ;  Aphek  ;  Hamath. 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
Allotment  of  the  East 117 

Age  of  Joshua — Principles  of  the  division  of  the  land — Settlement 
of  Reuben — The  Belka — Fertility  of  the  region— Zerka  or  Callir- 
rhoe — Heshbon — Medeba— Dibon  ;  the  Moabite  stone — Nebo — 
Aroer;  the  Arnon — Kirjathaim — Sibmah — Beth-peor — Zareth- 
Shahar — Characteristics  and  fate  of  the  Reubenites— Settlement 
of  Gad  ;  its  extent  and  character — The  Jarmuk — The  Jabbok — 
Jebel-Osha— Mahanaim — Penuel  —  Succoth  — Ramoth-Mizpeh  — 
Debir  —  Jabesh-Gilead  —  Rabbath-Ammon  —  Beth-aram  —  Beth- 
nimrah — Zaphon — Characteristics  and  fate  of  the  Gadites — Settle- 
ment of  the  half-tribe  of  Manasseh — The  territory  described — 
Bashan — The  Hauran — Argob  —  Edrei — Ashtaroth-Karnaim — 
Nobah  —  Salcah  —  Golan  —  Havoth  -  Jair  —  Characteristics  of 
Manasseh. 

CHAPTER  IX. 

Allotments  of  Judah  and  Joseph 140 

Arrangements  for  the  further  distribution  of  territory — The  lot — 
Caleb's  inheritance  at  Hebron — Othniel  and  Achsah — Settlement 


CONTENTS.  vii 

PAGB 

of  Judah — Boundaries  of  the  territory — The  Negeb ;  Kerioth  ; 
Beersheba — The  Shephelah  ;  Zoreah  ;  Socoh  ;  Keilah — The  Hill 
country  and  its  cities  ;  Places  connected  with  David's  outlaw  life  ; 
Bethlehem  ;  Jeshimon  ;  Engedi — Characteristics  and  fortunes  of 
Judah — Settlement  of  the  tribe  of  Joseph — Boundaries  of  the  terri- 
tory ;  its  physical  character — Complaint  and  pride  of  Ephraim — 
Inheritance  of  Ephraim  ;  Shiloh  ;  Timnath-Serah — Inheritance  of 
Manasseh — Daughters  of  Zelophehad — Esdraelon  ;  Bethshan  ; 
Ibleam  ;  Endor  ;  Megiddo;  Ophrah — Tabernacle  removed  to 
Shiloh. 

CHAPTER  X. 

Allotments  of  the  Remaining  Tribes 159 

Renewed  arrangements  for  completing  the  partition.  The  lot  of 
Benjamin — Characteristics  of  Benjamin — Boundaries  of  the  terri- 
tory— Physical  peculiarities — Its  cities  ;  Ekron  ;  Gaba  ;  Ramah — 
Fortunes  of  Benjamin — The  lot  of  Simeon — Characteristics — 
Cities  assigned  ;  Moladah  ;  Ziklag  ;  Beth-Marcaboth — Fate  of  the 
tribe — The  lot  of  Zebulun — Limits  of  the  territory — Places  on  the 
border  lines — Character  of  the  tribe  and  its  territory — The  lot  of 
Issachar — Plain  of  Esdraelon  —  Cities  of  Issachar  ;  Jezreel ; 
Shunem  ;  Engannim — Characteristics  and  fortunes  of  the  tribe — 
The  lot  of  Asher — Limits  of  the  territory — The  Crocodile  River — 
Towns  of  Asher  ;  Hamnion  ;  Tyre — Characteristics  and  fortunes 
of  the  tribe— The  lot  of  Naphtali  ;  its  limits — Cities  of  Naphtali  ; 
Tiberias  ;  Chinnereth  ;  Kedesh  ;  Magdala — Nature  of  the  country 
— Fortunes  of  the  tribe — The  lot  of  Dan — Limits  of  the  territory — 
Its  towns  ;  Ajalon  ;  Mahaneh-Dan — Expedition  to  the  North — 
Seizure  of  Laish — Characteristics  and  history  of  the  tribe — 
Joshua's  inheritance. 

CHAPTER  XI. 

Religious  Arrangements 184 

The  custom  of  blood-revenge — Homicide  and  murder — Cities 
of  refuge — Right  of  asylum  ;  how  guarded — The  death  of  the 
high  priest — Inheritance  of  Levi — Cities  with  pasturage  assigned 
— The  three  famihes  of  Levites — Towns  allotted  to  each  — Ana- 
thoth — Distribution  of  Levites — Trans-Jordanic  tribes  dismissed — 
They  erect  an  altar  ;  its  situation — Action  of  Western  Israelites 
under  a  misapprehension — The  matter  explained  and  settled 
satisfactorily. 

CHAPTER    XII. 

Last  Days 196 

The  commonwealth  of  Israel— First  address  of  Joshua— Final 
charge  at  Shechem — The  people's  response — Ratification  of  the 
Covenant — Death  of  Joshua — His  tomb — Tomb  of  Eleazar. 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

Character  and  Work     .        .  204 

Character  of  Joshua  ;  his  faith,  generalship,  unselfishness — The 
Book  of  Joshua ;  its  age,  origin,  place  in  Canon— Miracles- 
Typical  character  of  Joshua  and  his  work. 


CHAPTER  I. 

EARLIER     YEARS. 

First  appearance  of  Joshua  in  history  ;  his  name  and  parentage— The 
minister  of  Moses — ^Jealousy  for  his  master's  honour— Sent  as  one  of 
the  twelve  spies  ;  his  report — Lessons  in  the  wilderness — Appointed 
successor  of  Moses— Death  of  Moses — Phoenicians,  Hittites,  and 
Canaanites  ;  their  religion  and  moral  degradation — Different  views 
concerning  the  settlement  of  Israel  in  Palestine— The  destruction  of 
the  Canaanites  considered  ;  the  Israelites'  part  therein— Joshua  en- 
couraged. 

There  is  something  strange  and  unexpected  in  the  first 
appearance  of  the  name  of  Joshua  in  the  pages  of  Scripture. 
It  comes  suddenly,  heralded  by  no  announcement,  explained  by- 
no  previous  allusion.  The  Amalekites  have  withstood  Israel  at 
its  entrance  into  the  peninsula  of  Sinai,  and  their  opposition 
must  be  defeated  at  all  hazards.  Then  with  no  preliminary  re- 
mark the  narrator  continues  :  "  And  Moses  said  unto  Joshua, 
Choose  us  out  men,  and  go  out,  fight  with  Amalek."*  Con- 
scious of  his  own  impaired  activity,  and  recognizing  the  military 
skill  of  Joshua,  Moses  does  not  hesitate  to  give  him  the  com- 
mand at  this  crisis.  The  choice  was  proved  to  be  good.  Though 
the  enemy  was  brave  and  determined,  and  the  battle  was 
obstinately  contested  till  the  close  of  day,  the  Israelites  under 
their  new  leader  were  thoroughly  successful,  the  Amalekites 
suffered  a  very  severe  defeat,  and,  taught  by  this  lesson,  re- 
frained from  molesting  the  pilgrims  during  the  rest  of  their  long 
wanderings.  The  account  of  this  victory  Moses  was  directed 
to  record  in  the  annals  of  the  people,  and  especially  to  impress 
upon    the    mind   of  Joshua   the  foreordained    doom    of   the 

'  Exod.  xvii.  9. 

2 


2  JOSHUA. 

Amalekites — a  premonition  of  the  part  which  he  would  have  to 
play  in  the  conquest  and  subjugation  of  this  and  kindred 
nations/ 

Joshua  at  this  time  was  no  young,  untried  man  ;  he  must 
have  been  forty  years  old  or  morej^"  and  had  gone  through  all 
the  hardships  of  the  life  and  bondage  in  Egypt,  and  had  doubt- 
less on  many  occasions  proved  his  ability  and  endeared  himself 
to  Moses.  His  name  was  originally  Hosea,  but  was  changed 
by  Moses  to  Jehoshua,^  shortened  later  into  Joshua  and  Jeshua. 
It  is  written  Oshea,  Hoshea,  and  Hosea,  and  in  the  Septuagint 
appears  as  Jesus,  as  it  does  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews 
(chap.  iv.  8),  and  in  Acts  (chap.  vii.  45).  The  original  word 
means  "  dehverance,"  or  "  salvation  "  ;  to  this  was  added  the 
syllable  denoting  the  sacred  name  Jah  or  Jehovah,  which  would 
give  to  the  word  the  signification,  "  the  Lord's  salvation,"  or 
"the  Lord  is  salvation,"  or,  as  Pearson ■*  takes  it,  "God  the 
Saviour.''  It  was  a  great  name,  the  greatest  of  all  names,  a  fit 
prelude  to  notable  deeds,  an  appellation  which  would  incite  its 
bearer  to  act  worthily  of  so  august  a  reference.  Joshua  was  the 
son  of  Nun,  a  member  of  the  tribe  of  Ephraim,  and,  according 
to  the  Chronicler,^  twelfth  in  descent  from  the  Patriarch  Joseph. 
The  name  of  his  mother  is  unknown.  Among  his  ancestors  his 
grandfather  Elishama  is  mentioned  as  being  the  chief  of 
Ephraim  and  bearing  the  standard  of  the  tribe.  Born  in  the 
land  of  Goshen,  his  birth  would  synchronize  with  Moses' 
flight  into  Midian,  when  the  treatment  of  the  Israelites  was 
most  harsh  and  their  condition  growing  daily  more  insupport- 
able. This,  according  to  the  common  chronology,  was  about 
1 531  B.C.;  but  if,  as  late  discoveries  lead  us  to  believe,  the 
Exodus  took  place  not  B.C.  1491,  but  B.C.  1320,^  the  year  of 
Joshua's  birth  would  be  B.C.  1360,  his  death  occurring  in  his 
I  loth  year,  B.C.  1250.  What  was  his  experience  during  his  early 
life  in  Egypt  we  know  not ;  the  idolatry  of  the  inhabitants,  with 

*  "  Write  this  for  a  memorial  in  a  book,  and  rehearse  it  in  the  ears  of 
Joshua." 

2  Josephus,  "Ant."  v.  1.29,  makes  him  forty-five  at  the  time  of  the 
Exodus.     See  below,  chap.  viii.  3  Numb.  xiii.  8,  16  ;  Deut.  xxxii.  44. 

4  "On  the  Creed,"  Art.  ii.  5  i  Chron.  viii.  23  ;  Numb.  ii.  18  ;  x.  22. 

^  Two  recent  articles  in  "  The  Theological  Monthly"  (March  and  July, 
1889)  fix  the  Exodus  at  B.C.  1438.  But  the  writer  takes  no  account  of  the 
discoveries  at  Tel-el- Maskhutah. 


EARLIER   YEARS.  3 

its  degradation  and  immorality,  must  have  been  daily  before  his 
eyes  ;  he  must  have  seen  the  attraction  which  this  sensuous 
worship  exercised  upon  his  countrymen  ;  doubtless  he  shared 
in  the  rigour  with  which  his  brethren  were  treated,  and  by 
serving  learned  to  command  ;  doubtless,  too,  he  had  hailed  with 
joy  the  judgments  of  God  which  preceded  the  uprising  of  the 
people,  and  aided  in  marshalling  the  unwieldy  mass  for  its 
hurried  flight.  As  a  chief  of  the  important  tribe  of  Ephraim, 
and  as  one  already  well  known  for  his  skill  in  organization,  and 
one  thoroughly  trusted  by  the  people,  to  him  Moses  turned  as 
the  leader  best  fitted  to  select  and  arrange  the  combatants  for 
their  first  and  most  important  struggle.  From  this  time  he  is 
associated  with  the  great  prophet  in  the  closest  relation,  and 
is  called  his  minister  or  servant,  attending  him  on  the  most 
solemn  occasions.  Thus  when  Moses,  Aaron  with  his  sons, 
and  the  seventy  elders,  went  some  way  up  the  awful  mountain 
Sinai  to  eat  the  sacrificial  meal  which  was  the  seal  of  the 
newly  made  covenant,  Joshua  accompanied  Moses  as  his 
servant,  and  was  left  by  him  on  the  mount  while  he  himself 
advanced  into  the  cloud  to  hold  mysterious  communion  with 
the  Lord.  And  when  after  the  forty  days'  revelation  was  con- 
summated, and  Moses,  informed  of  the  people's  lapse  into 
idolatry,  was  returning  sadly  to  his  common  life  and  cares, 
Joshua  was  the  first  to  meet  him,  and  call  his  attention  to  the 
commotion  and  shouting  in  the  camp  below.  Ignorant  of  the 
real  cause,  the  warrior  can  think  of  but  one  origin  for  the  un- 
wonted tumult :  "  There  is  a  noise  of  war  in  the  camp,"  he  says. 
It  is  characteristic  of  the  thought  of  one  whose  mind  is  set  on 
military  matters  and  the  defence  of  a  position  in  a  hostile 
country  to  attribute  such  excitement  to  the  presence  of  enemies 
and  the  strife  of  combatants.  In  the  severe  punishment  of  the 
idolaters  Joshua  took  no  part ;  that  was  left  to  the  children  of 
Levi  ;  but  thenceforward  he  adhered  more  closely  than  ever  to 
the  side  of  Moses,  so  that  it  is  said  that  he  departed  not  out  of 
Moses'  tent ;  ^  he  ministered  to  his  great  master  when  present, 

»  Exod.  xxxiii.  ii.  The  A.V.  has  :  "  the  tabernacle  "  ;  but  the  tabernacle 
proper  was  not  yet  erected  ;  and  this  "tent  of  meeting  "  was  most  probably 
Moses'  own  temporary  habitation  used  for  this  special  purpose.  In  the 
above  passage  Joshua  is  called  "a  young  man  "  {naar),  but  the  term  is 
often  used  vaguely  of  pupilage,  or  as  expressive  of  vigour  and  activity,  with- 
out special  reference  to  actual  age. 


4  JOSHUA. 

and  during  the  frequent  absence  of  the  latter  he  guarded  the 
sacred  residence  and  the  various  holy  relics  deposited  therein. 
The  next  occasion  on  which  his  name  appears  is  on  the  appoint- 
ment of  the  seventy  elders  to  assist  Moses  in  the  administration 
of  his  onerous  charge.  Here  he  comes  forth  as  jealous  of  his 
master's  honour.  Among  those  thus  duly  appointed,  two,  Eldad 
and  Medad,  had  not  gone  with  the  others  to  the  tent  of  meeting 
to  receive  their  public  inauguration  ;  yet  when  these  others  had 
their  office  accredited  by  receivipg  the  power  of  "  prophesying," 
/.<?.,  uttering  the  praises  of  God  and  declaring  His  will,  the 
same  sign  was  granted  to  the  absentees,  "  and  they  prophesied 
in  the  camp,"  Joshua,  conceiving  that  they  were  acting  in- 
dependently and  setting  up  a  rival  authority,  urged  Moses  to 
forbid  them,  but  was  answered  by  that  meek  saint :  "  Would 
God  that  all  the  Lord's  people  were  prophets,  that  the  Lord 
would  put  His  spirit  upon  them."  * 

For  many  months  now  we  lose  sight  of  Joshua,  nor  is  it  till 
the  host  was  approaching  the  borders  of  the  Promised  Land,  in 
the  second  year  after  the  Exodus,  that  his  name  again  appears 
in  the  sacred  record.  On  this  occasion  he  represents  his  own 
tribe  as  one  of  the  twelve  spies  sent  into  Canaan  to  prepare  the 
way  for  the  contemplated  invasion  by  making  careful  observa- 
tion of  the  people,  the  country  with  its  soil  and  cultivation,  the 
strength  and  fortification  of  the  cities,  and  all  other  points  the 
knowledge  of  which  might  be  a  guide  to  future  proceedings. 
As  these  messengers,  starting  from  the  southern  wilderness, 
penetrated  to  the  plain  of  Coele  Syria,  in  the  far  north,  between 
Lebanon  and  Antilebanon,  Joshua  had  a  good  opportunity  of 
gaining  acquaintance  not  only  with  the  nature  of  the  population, 
but  also  with  the  physical  features  of  the  country,  which  was  of 
great  assistance  to  him  in  subsequent  operations.  It  was  at 
this  time,  perhaps,  that  Moses  added  the  honourable  syllable  to 
Joshua's  name,  as  if  he  would  denote  that  this  leader  was 
specially  under  the  protection  of  God  ("  God-help "),  and 
already  destined  for  great  things.  Similarly  we  have  new 
names  bestowed  on  Abram  and  Jacob,  with  a  deep  significance, 
the  former  receiving  the  name  Abraham  ("  Father  of  a  multi- 
tude"), the  latter  that  of  Israel  ("God  fighteth").  Distinguished 
for  bravery  and  resolution,  Joshua  at  this  crisis  showed  himself 
possessed  of  a  far  more  uncommon  attribute,  moral  courage. 
^  Numb.  xi.  25  ff.     Comp.  Mark  ix.  38. 


EARLIER  YEARS.  5 

In  the  face  of  the  unfavourable  report  of  their  companions ' 
and  the  general  opposition  of  the  disheartened  people,  Joshua 
and  Caleb  alone  expressed  their  belief  in  the  possibility  of 
success,  and  urged  the  invasion  of  the  land  which  was  to  be 
their  inheritance.  Strong  in  faith  and  trusting  in  Divine 
protection,  these  two  men  were  not  appalled  by  the  thought  of 
the  task  that  lay  before  them  ;  fortified  cities,  gigantic  foes, 
insecure  tenure,  had  no  terrors  for  them ;  the  Lord  had 
promised  to  give  the  country  to  His  people,  and  He  would 
prosper  their  proceedings.  To  the  warrior  Joshua  it  seemed  a 
feasible  enterprise.  It  had  been  the  dream  of  his  life  for  many 
a  month  ;  he  could  not  bear  to  think  of  disappointment  now ; 
a  resolute  purpose,  a  vigorous  blow,  a  brief  campaign,  and  the 
result  could  not  be  doubted.  He  and  his  friend  were  of  one 
mind  in  the  matter.  "  The  land,  which  we  passed  through  to 
spy  it  out,"  they  said,  "is  an  exceeding  good  land.  If  the  Lord 
delight  in  us,  then  He  will  bring  us  into  this  land,  and  give  it 
unto  us.  Only  rebel  not  against  the  Lord,  neither  fear  ye  the 
people  of  the  land  ;  for  they  are  bread  for  us  ;  their  defence  is 
removed  from  over  them,  and  the  Lord  is  with  us  ;  fear  them 
not."  These  were  brave,  faithful  words  ;  but  they  fell  on  deaf 
ears.  These  two  righteous  men  had  their  reward  in  being 
spared  when  the  other  spies  died  by  the  heaven-sent  plague. 
In  the  subsequent  ill-advised  attack  on  the  Amalekites  and 
Canaanites  with  its  disastrous  issue  Joshua  took  no  part ;  he 
remained  with  Moses  and  the  ark  in  the  camp.  And  now  we 
lose  sight  of  him  for  eight-and-thirty  years,  the  term  of  the 
penal  wanderings  in  the  wilderness.  But  this  weary  time  must 
have  taught  him  much.  One  lesson  must  have  forcibly  im- 
pressed him;  the  terrible  punishment  of  the  rebellion  of  Korah, 
Dathan,  and  Abiram  could  not  have  been  witnessed  unmoved  ; 
nor  could  he  help  gathering  therefrom  the  great  truth  of  the 
sanctity  of  the  priesthood  and  the  sin  of  unhallowed  intrusion 
into  the  sacerdotal  office.  Then,  again,  what  a  lesson  of  entire 
submission  to  the  will  of  God  did  he  learn  from  the  one  lapse 
of  his  master  Moses,  so  sternly  punished  !  He  had  seen 
Miriam  die  ;  he  had  seen  Aaron  buried  in  Mount  Hor  ;  he  had 

»  "Aland  that  eateth  up  the  inhabitants  thereof"  (Numb.  xiii.  32).  This 
expression  is  explained  as  denoting  that  the  country  was  malarious  and 
pestilential,  or  so  exposed  to  attack  that  its  occupants  must  be  always  on 
the  watch. 


6  JOSHUA. 

seen  Israel  warring,  tempted,  fallen,  recovered.  But  his  part 
in  these  momentous  matters  is  not  recorded.  It  is  at  the  close 
of  the  life  of  Moses  that  he  next  comes  before  us,  and  this  at 
the  most  important  point  of  his  career.  History  does  not 
mention  who  was  the  leader  that  had  the  conduct  of  the  three 
wars  which  gave  Israel  possession  of  Eastern  Palestine,  adding 
a  final  glory  to  the  fame  of  the  great  lawgiver  ;  ^  but  it  is  most 
probable  that  they  were  waged  and  brought  to  a  successful 
issue  under  the  leadership  of  Joshua,  the  experienced  com- 
mander, and  the  tried  friend  of  his  eminent  master.  When 
Moses  was  warned  that  his  end  was  approaching,  knowing  that 
he  himself  was  debarred  from  entering  the  promised  land,  he 
desired  God  to  give  the  people  a  competent  leader  who  would 
rightly  conduct  this  momentous  undertaking,  "  that  the  congre- 
gation of  the  Lord  be  not  as  sheep  which  have  no  shepherd." 
No  thought  of  obtaining  the  post  for  either  of  his  sons,  Gershom 
and  Eliezer,  entered  his  mind.  They  had  shown  no  aptitude 
for  such  an  office  ;  and  to  place  the  enterprise  in  incompetent 
hands  would  ensure  failure,  and  restrain  the  favour  of  the  Lord 
without  which  success  was  impossible.  Neither  were  his 
nephews  or  grand-nephews  ehgible.  Phinehas,  indeed,  was  a 
man  of  vast  energy  and  of  some  military  skill,  but  his  ecclesi- 
astical duties  were  numerous  and  absorbing ;  they  would 
certainly  interfere  with  his  leadership,  and  one  of  the  two  must 
perforce  be  neglected  But  Moses  was  spared  the  selection  ; 
he  had  committed  the  choice  to  God,  and  the  matter  was 
decided  for  him.  He  was  directed  to  take  Joshua,  "  a  man  in 
whom  is  the  Spirit,"  and  solemnly  dedicate  him  as  his  successor, 
by  laying  his  hand  upon  him,  and  at  once  giving  him  a  certain 
authority  and  dignity.  The  chosen  one  was  in  every  relation 
acceptable  ;  he  was  joined  to  Moses  by  the  closest  ties  of  love 
and  respect ;  he  had  given  constant  proof  of  courage  and  ability, 
and  the  leadership  could  not  be  committed  to  more  competent 
hands.  Yet  great  and  highly  regarded  as  he  was,  in  one 
particular  he  came  far  behind  his  predecessor.  This  vice- 
leader  was  distinguished  from  Moses  by  the  mode  of  com- 
munication with  God.  Both,  indeed,  were  theocratic  chiefs; 
both  were  directed  by  Divine  monitions  ;  but  while  Moses  had 
enjoyed  direct  intercourse  with  God,  the  Lord  "  speaking  unto 

«  See  Prof.  Rawlinson,  "  Moses  :  his  Life  and  Times,"  pp.  182  ff. 


EARLIER  YEARS.  7 

him  face  to  face,  as  a  man  speaketh  unto  his  friend,"  *  Joshua 
was  to  seek  counsel  through  the  High  Priest,  by  the  use  of  the 
Urim  and  Thummim.  The  designation  of  Joshua  was  made 
some  little  time  before  Moses'  death  ;  the  final  transference  of 
succession  followed.  A  solemn  assembly  of  all  Israel  was  sum- 
moned, and  Moses  publicly  handed  over  to  Joshua  the  leader- 
ship which  for  forty  years  he  himself  had  exercised.  He  knew 
the  arduous  nature  of  the  work  that  had  to  be  accomplished, 
and  his  constant  injunction  to  his  successor  is,  "  Be  strong  and 
of  a  good  courage"  :  there  is,  indeed,  necessity  for  great  fortitude, 
but  there  is  a  happy  assurance  of  support,  for  the  Lord  will  go 
with  him  and  never  fail  him,  therefore  he  confidently  repeats  : 
"  Fear  not,  neither  be  dismayed."  Jewish  tradition  ^  narrates 
how  the  dying  prophet  commits  to  Joshua  not  only  the  office  of 
leader,  but  also  certain  documents  contaming  the  laws  of  the 
community,  which  he  is  to  keep  safely  stored  in  earthenware 
receptacles  till  a  place  is  found  on  which  the  Lord  shall  set  His 
name.  Moses  then  gives  a  prophetic  sketch  of  Jewish  history 
down  to  the  time  of  the  Herods.  Appalled  at  the  greatness  of 
the  task  before  him,  Joshua  rends  his  clothes  and  falls  at  the 
feet  of  Moses,  weeping  to  think  that  he  in  his  incompetence  is 
left  to  take  the  place  of  this  mighty  leader,  and  that  there  will  be 
no  one  to  intercede  for  the  people,  if  thevfall  into  sin,  no  one  to 
inspire  terror  into  the  mind  of  their  enemies.  But  Moses  raises 
him  from  the  ground  and  places  him  on  the  seat  by  his  side  ; 
comforts  him  with  the  assurance  that  God  has  foreseen  and 
provided  for  all  these  things  from  the  beginning  ;  and  adds 
that  he  himself  has  been  chosen  by  the  Lord  for  this  post  not 
on  account  of  his  virtue  or  his  weakness,  but  through  the  Divine 
compassion.  According  to  the  sacred  historian^  the  delegation 
was  finally  confirmed  by  God  Himself  in  the  Tabernacle, 
whither  the  two  chiefs  were  summoned.  Here  the  Lord  gave 
Joshua  a  charge,  appearing  in  the  pillar  of  cloud,  and  saying  to 
him,  "  Be  strong  and  of  a  good  courage  :  for  thou  shalt  bring 
the  children  of  Israel  into  the  land  which  I  sware  unto  them  ; 
and  I  will  be  with  thee."  Such  a  declaration,  so  wonderfully 
bestowed,  drove  aside  all  diffidence  and  distrust,  and  filled  him 
with  the  courage  of  a  hero,  and  the   calm   consciousness  of 

*  Exod.  xxxiv.  II  ;  Deut.  xxxi.  7,  8. 

*  See   "  Assumptio  Moyseos"  in   Fritzsche's    "  Libri  Apocryp'.ii  V.T." 
There  are  also  editions  by  Volkmar  and  others.  3  Deut.  xxxi.  14,  23. 


8  JOSHUA. 

power  that  insured  success.  Fire  kindles  fire  ;  the  intrepidity 
of  the  commander  would  augment  the  fortitude  of  the  troops, 
and  the  unwarlike  Israelites,  following  such  guidance  and 
upheld  by  such  hopes,  might  achieve  momentous  results,  and 
attain  the  object  of  their  ambition. 

It  was  not  permitted  to  Joshua  to  see  the  actual  death  of  his 
master.  He  and  Eleazar  the  priest  had  accompanied  the  dying 
saint  on  his  pilgrimage  to  Pisgah  ;  but  when  the  end  came  they 
saw  not.  Alone,  removed  from  all  human  ken,  IVIoses  yielded  up 
his  spirit.  Where  he  died,  and  where  his  sacred  body  rests,  no 
mortal  man  knoweth.  The  sacred  record  says  vaguely.  "  He 
was  buried  in  the  valley  in  the  land  of  Moab,  over  against  Beth- 
peor."  This  may  well  have  been  the  weird  gorge  of  Callirrhoe 
(Zerka  M'ain),  on  the  ridge  immediately  north  of  which  it  is 
probable  Beth-peor  stood,  where  a  narrow  spur  runs  out  to 
Minyeh,  and  where  a  prehistoric  circle  of  stones  exists  to  this 
day.' 

The  work  which  Moses  was  not  allowed  to  accomplish, 
Joshua  had  now  to  undertake  and  carry  to  completion.  This 
task  was  an  arduous  one.  He  had  not  to  take  possession  of 
and  colonize  an  uninhabited  country  ;  he  had  not  to  expel  or 
subdue  mere  savages,  of  inferior  race  and  culture  ;  on  the 
contrary,  the  people  whom  he  was  about  to  displace  were  in 
many  respects  more  civilized  and  advanced  than  the  Hebrews, 
and  were  vastly  their  superiors  in  the  use  of  arms  and  in  all 
matters  pertaining  to  military  experience.  Canaan,  the  country 
which  he  proposed  to  conquer,  was  already,  and  had  for 
centuries  been,  inhabited  by  Phoenicians,  the  greatest  com- 
mercial nation  of  antiquity,  to  whom  Europe  owes  her  letters, 
who  in  their  restless  energy  penetrated  beyond  the  bounds  of 
the  Mediterranean  Sea,  and  carried  off  stores  of  minerals  from 
the  shores  of  Britain.  While  the  Israelites  were  sojourning  in 
Egypt,  Phoenicia  had  reached  the  height  of  its  prosperity.  In 
close  union  with  the  Hittites  it  may  be  said  to  have  become  a 
power  in  the  world,  the  rival  of  Assyria  and  Egypt.  The 
Hittites,  as  we  have  lately  discovered,  were  a  people  of  wide 
possessions,  of  high  culture,  and  of  vast  importance  in  human 
history.  From  Kadesh  on  the  Orontes,  far  north  of  Palestine, 
to  Carchemish  on  the  Euphrates  in  the  distant  East,  their 
empire  extended  ;  the  promised  land  was  included  in  their 
'  Conder,  "  Hetli  and  ^loab,"  141  f. 


EARLIER  YEARS.  9 

territories,  the  petty  kings  of  this  country  owing  allegiance  to 
them  ;  and  it  was  not  to  be  supposed  that  they  and  their 
dependants  would  be  displaced  without  a  severe  struggle.  If 
they  are  mentioned  only  as  one  of  the  seven  nations  which 
occupied  the  country  at  this  time,  we  have  evidence  that  they 
were  the  most  prominent  tribe  in  Palestine,  being  an  offshoot 
of  the  great  nation  whose  name  they  bore.  In  the  time  of 
Abraham  they  duelt  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Hebron,  and  later 
they  appear  as  mingled  with  the  Amorites,  and  inhabiting  the 
mountains  of  Ephraim  and  Judaea.  The  other  nations  which 
had  their  home  in  this  territory  were  the  following,  as  enume- 
rated by  Joshua  to  his  assembled  army  : '  the  Canaanites,  or 
Lowlanders  who  dwelt  on  the  sea-coast  and  the  Jordan  valley  ; 
the  Hivites,  a  peaceful  tribe  who  inhabited  Shechem  and  its 
vicinity,  and  had  a  settlement  also  in  Anti-Libanus  ;  the  Periz- 
zites,  agriculturists  dwelling  in  the  unwalled  villages  of  Central 
and  Southern  Palestine  ;  the  Girgashites,  who  are  supposed  to 
have  taken  their  name  from  Gergesa  or  Gerasa  on  Lake  Gen- 
nesareth,  and  appear  to  have  been  a  clan  of  small  importance  ; 
the  Amorites,  or  mountaineers,  the  most  powerful  of  the 
Canaanite  peoples,  who,  in  close  connection  with  the  Hittites, 
had  established  themselves  both  east  and  west  of  the  Jordan  in 
various  localities  ;  the  Jebusites,  who  held  the  central  highlands 
round  their  impregnable  capital,  Jerusalem,  and  were  of  Hittite 
or  Amorite  race. 

The  religious  and  moral  condition  of  these  nations  was 
utterly  corrupt.  Luxury  and  commercial  prosperity  had  pro- 
duced a  moral  depravity  which  cried  aloud  for  punishment 
and  repression.  If,  as  is  probable,  the  religions  of  Greece  and 
Rome  owed  their  origin  to  Phoenician  elements,  we  see  them 
at  their  best  in  the  case  of  the  former,  and  in  their  most  degraded 
shape  in  the  country  from  which  they  sprung.  The  Phoenician 
religion  was  a  deification  of  the  lorces  of  nature,  and  led  natu- 
rally to  the  grossest  licentiousness  practised  under  the  guise  of 
worship.  The  chief  god  was  Baal,  who  under  various  names 
was  adored  as  the  sun,  and  the  prevalence  of  whose  vvoi  sliip  is 
seen  in  the  numerous  appellations  of  places  and  persons  which 
contain  the  word.  To  him  as  consort  was  united  Ashiaroth 
or  Astarte,  who  seems  to  have  combined  the  characteristics 
of  the  classic  Artemis  and  Aphrodite,  and  to  have  been  taken 
^  Josh.  iii.  lo.     Conip.  Dcut.  vii.  i. 


lO  JOSHUA. 

as  representative  of  the  reproductive  process  and  the  fecundity 
of  nature.  Of  the  gross  impurity  practised  in  her  worship  it 
becomes  us  not  to  speak.  But  the  general  nature  of  the 
rehgion  as  it  appears  in  our  sacred  books  is  such  as  we 
gather  it  to  have  been  from  other  sources,  cruel,  bloodthirsty, 
licentious.  When  a  people  has  come  to  believe  that  the 
deities  whom  it  worships  are  best  propitiated  by  human  sacri- 
fices, by  ruthless  severing  of  nearest  ties,  by  debauchery,  and 
unspeakable  degradation,  it  is  time  for  judgment  to  begin. 

According  to  neologian  criticism  the  settlement  of  Israel 
in  the  land  of  Canaan  took  place  at  various  times,  and  under 
varying  conditions.  Some  tribes  settled  peaceably  among  the 
Canaanites  ;  others  force:!  their  way  sword  in  hand.  The 
notion  that  there  were  ever  twelve  tribes  existing  at  the  same 
time  is  chimerical,  and  has  been  foisted  into  the  history  for 
genealogical  purposes.  The  immigration  was  dictated  by  the 
customary  restlessness  of  a  nomadic  people,  and  was  only 
partially  successful  ;  but  the  new-comers  gradually  took  the 
lead,  their  religion  and  moral  force  being  superior  to  those 
of  the  nations  whom  they  dispossessed.'  The  Bible  gives 
a  very  different  representation  of  the  transaction  ;  it  exhibits 
the  Israelites  as  entering  upon  a  long  promised  inheritance, 
and  as  executing  the  wrath  of  God  upon  a  horde  of  offenders 
who  were  unfit  to  live.  Many  centuries  ago  the  Land  of 
Canaan  had  been  promised  to  Abraham  and  his  posterity. 
The  earth  is  the  Lord's,  and  He  giveth  possession  to  whom- 
soever He  pleaseth  ;  and  He  had  distinctly  and  ol'ten  declared 
that  the  people  whom  He  jjad  chosen  should  in  due  time 
immigrate  hither  and  become  a  mighty  nation  in  whom  all 
the  world  should  be  blessed.  This  hope  had  been  continually 
set  before  the  patriarchs  ;  it  had  animated  their  faith,  inspired 
them  with  patience,  and  encouriiged  them  under  pressure  of 
adverse  circumstances.  It  was  this  hope  that  led  the  dying 
Jacob  to  engiige  his  stms  to  bury  his  body  in  the  cave  of 
Machpelah  ;  it  was  this  hope  that  constrained  Joseph  to  direct 
that  when  God  visited  His  people  to  deliver  them  out  of  Egypt, 
they  should  carry  his  bones  v.'ith  them  to  their  new  home. 
And   now  the  time  was  come   for  them  to  enter   upon    their 

^  These  are  the  views  of  Wellhausen  and  Stade.  A  summary  oi 
them   is  given  by  the  Rev.  A.    W.   Oxford   in  his   "  Introduction  to  the 

History  of  Ancent  Israel."     (London,  1887.) 


EARLIER  YEARS.  II 

inheritance,  and  settle  whither  the  Providence  of  God  was 
leading  them.  Whatever  right  the  Canaanites  had  to  the  land 
by  force  of  long  possession  was  forfeited  by  their  wickedness, 
and  it  was  made  over  to  the  Hebrews  to  be  the  centre  of 
pure  religion  and  the  earthly  scene  of  the  kingdom  of  God. 

The  morality  of  this  dispossession  and  wholesale  destruction 
of  the  Canaanites  has  often  been  questioned.  Grounded  here- 
upon objections  against  God's  justice  and  mercifulness  were 
made  in  primitive  times,  and  have  been  repeated  in  various 
forms  down  to  this  present  day.  But  they  admit  of  a  satis- 
factory answer,  which  can  be  shortly  stated.  Granted  that 
the  moral  condition  of  these  nations  was  so  utterly  corrupt 
that  their  eradication  was  a  necessary  result  of  God's  govern- 
ment of  the  world  by  a  system  of  rewards  and  punishments, 
and  we  are  at  once  constrained  to  think  more  of  the  result 
than  of  the  agents  by  which  the  result  was  obtained.  Whether 
the  intended  destruction  was  effected  by  war,  or  famine,  or 
pestilence,  or  earthquake,  the  particular  visitation  was  God's 
instrument,  and  was  guided  in  its  ravages  by  His  Providence. 
The  Israelites  were  specially  designated,  and  felt  themselves 
to  be,  agents  in  the  Lord's  hands  to  execute  His  purpose  of 
vengeance  upon  outrageous  sinners.  Their  conscience  was 
quite  clear  in  the  matter.  In  an  age  when  human  life  was 
little  regarded,  the  annihilation  of  a  people  aroused  no  feeling 
of  abhorrence,  was  not  felt  to  be  cruel  and  monstrous,  and  no 
squeamish  pity  interfered  to  check  the  course  of  the  judicial 
punishment.  The  destruction  is  in  no  degree  more  ruthless  and 
unreasonable  because  inflicted  by  human  agents.  Men  are 
carried  off  by  all  manners  of  death,  by  sickness,  by  accident, 
by  old  age,  and  we  think  these  inflictions  natural,  and  never 
complain  of  their  injustice ;  why  should  death  at  the  hands  of 
man  be  placed  in  a  different  category  ?  If  the  Canaanites  had 
been  gradually  obliterated  by  famine  or  pestilence,  men  would 
not  have  arraigned  God's  Providence,  though  their  sufferings 
and  misery  would  have  been  enhanced  tenfold  ;  yet  surely, 
if  they  had  to  be  executed,  the  edge  of  the  sword,  as  it  was 
the  speediest,  so  it  was  the  most  merciful  mode  of  death. 
We  must  also  remember  that  it  was  the  common  practice  of 
the  time  and  country  to  put  to  death  the  whole  population 
of  a  conquered  town  or  district.  The  Assyrian  monuments 
constantly  record  the    general  slaughter  that  ensued  on  the 


12  JOSHUA. 

capture  of  a  city.  Such  a  boast  may  be  seen  on  the  celebrated 
Moabite  Stone,  wherein  King  Mesha  felicitates  himself  in 
having  killed  all  the  men  of  Ataroth,  in  the  tribe  of  Gad. 
The  sentiment  which  spares  a  resisting  enemy  was  wholly 
foreign  to  the  minds  of  combatants  in  those  days,  and  would 
have  been  regarded  as  culpable  weakness  or  incomprehensible 
folly. 

It  must  be  observed  also  that  the  destruction  of  the 
Canaanites  was  by  no  means  so  complete  as  the  terms  used 
seem  to  imply.  From  apathy,  or  cowardice,  the  Israelites 
failed  signally  in  carrying  out  the  strict  injunctions  of  the  Law, 
and  left  large  districts  unconquered,  or  lived  on  peaceful 
terms  with  the  original  inhabitants.  And  many  of  these  latter 
avoided  extermination  by  flying  from  the  country,  or  into 
districts  as  yet  unsubdued,  or  took  refuge  in  cities  on  the 
seaboard.  An  inscription  (which  may  possibly  be  authentic) 
is  known  to  have  been  seen  at  Tangiers,  in  Africa,  which  stated 
that  the  inhabitants  were  the  descendants  of  fugitives  who  were 
driven  from  their  home  by  "Joshua,  the  son  of  Nun,  the 
plunderer."  * 

That  the  innocent  should  be  involved  in  the  destruction  of 
the  guilty,  is  a  matter  of  every-day  experience.  National 
calamities,  convulsions  of  nature,  material  scourges,  spare 
neither  age  nor  sex,  are  utterly  pitiless  in  operation.  We 
patiently  acquiesce  in  such  indiscriminate  dealing  because  we 
have  faith  in  God's  justice,  and  know  that  this  present  hfe  is 
only  one  little  scene  in  an  infinite  space  where  all  inequalities 
shall  be  righted,  and  all  incongruities  shall  be  remedied.  If 
the  degrading  idolatry,  the  atrocious  cruelty,  the  unnatural 
crimes,  of  these  Canaanites  cried  aloud  for  punishment,  what 
good  result  would  be  attained  by  sparing  any,  even  innocent 
children  ?  Would  these  grow  up  better  than  their  parents  ? 
Would  they  rise  superior  to  their  surroundings  ?  God's  mercy 
had  waited  long  for  the  repentance  of  these  nations.  They 
had  had  high  examples  of  piety  in  such  men  as  Melchizedek 
and  the  holy  patriarchs  who  sojourned  among  them  ;  ever 
before  their  eyes  lay  the  ruins  on  the  fatal  Plain  of  the  Salt 
Sea,  that  told  of  God's  vengeance  on  their  favourite  sins. 
Example  and  warning  were  given  in  vain.  The  wonders 
which  had  led  the  Israelites  out  of  Egypt,  the  Providence 
*  Rawlinson,  "  Bampton  Lectures,"  i.  72. 


EARLIER   YEARS.  1 3 

which  had  watched  over  them  for  forty  years  and  had  now 
brought  them  once  more  to  the  borders  of  Palestine,  filled  the 
heathen  with  vague  apprehension,  but  produced  no  tokens 
of  repentance  and  correction  of  error.  There  was  no  hope 
of  improvement ;  the  right  to  the  land,  whatever  it  was,  was 
originally  the  free  gift  of  God,  and  that  was  now  revoked  ; 
He  who  had  given  reclaimed  the  gift,  and  put  into  the  hands 
of  the  Israelites  the  execution  of  His  fiat.  And  was  it  not 
well  for  these  to  be  the  agents  in  carrying  out  this  sentence  ? 
How  better  could  they  have  been  taught  God's  abhorrence  of 
idolatry  and  the  evil  practices  which  it  occasioned?  When 
they  found  themselves  constrained  to-  put  to  death  the  whole 
inhabitants  of  city  after  city,  they  could  not  but  see  that  these 
victims  were  abominable  in  God's  sight,  and  that  wickedness 
such  as  theirs  was  certain  to  meet  with  severest  punishment. 
They  were  taught  in  the  most  practical  manner  the  danger  of 
evil  communication  ;  they  were  taught  that  there  could  be  no 
truce  between  them  and  the  heathens  who  dwelt  around  them, 
that  isolation  was  their  duty  and  their  safety.  We  see  how 
necessary  was  this  lesson  by  the  proneness  of  the  Israelites  to 
imitate  the  practices  of  other  peoples  with  whom  they  came  in 
contact  And  though  they  never  thoroughly  carried  out  the 
Divine  intention,  and  shrunk  from  the  complete  execution  of  the 
commands,  and  made  compromises,  and  were  but  half-hearted 
in  their  undertaking,  yet  even  this  partial  accomplishment  of 
the  stern  sentence  had  an  enduring  and  widely  extended  effect. 
The  heathen  did  not  grow  up  intermingled  with  the  people 
of  God  ;  the  spark  of  true  religion  was  not  smothered  by 
the  overpowering  blight  of  Paganism;  and  the  knowledge 
of  God  and  His  pure  worship  were  retained  and  kept  alive 
till  Messiah  Himself  appeared.  Thus  these  petty  struggles  in 
a  remote  corner  of  the  earth  have  a  world-wide  importance, 
did  a  work  which  was  providentially  ordered  to  help  forv/ard 
the  era  of  full  salvation,  preluded  the  revelation  of  Bethlehem 
and  the  triumph  of  Calvary.  To  the  Hebrews  alone  was  con- 
fided the  pure  idea  of  the  Peity  ;  had  they  been  overborne  or 
absorbed  by  the  heathen  peoples  around  them,  polytheistic 
abominations  would  have  been  vastly  encouraged,  and  th& 
history  of  humanity  would  have  been  terribly  ditlerent. 

W^ith  a  view  of  softening  the  apparent  severity  of  the  treat- 
ment of  the  Canaanites,  Rabbinical  writers  have  asserted  that 


14  JOSHUA. 

Joshua,  before  invading  the  land,  made  certain  offers  to  the 
inhabitants  in  accordance  with  the  instructions  in  Deut.  x.  14, 
proposing  that  those  who  did  not  wish  to  fight  should  either 
leave  the  country  or  become  tributary.  But  there  is  no  trace 
of  any  such  negotiations  in  our  history,  and  the  course  of 
action  prescribed  in  Deuteronomy  applied  only  to  foreign 
enemies,  and  might  not  be  employed  in  dealing  with  Canaan- 
ites  whose  utter  destruction  was  a  religious  obligr.tion. 

The  difficulties  of  the  great  work  which  fell  into  his  hands 
at  the  death  of  Moses  were  fully  felt  by  Joshua  ;  but  they  only 
braced  his  energies,  and  nerved  him  for  the  accomplishment 
of  the  undertaking.  And  he  received  special  encouragement. 
When  the  thirty  days'  mourning  for  Moses  were  past,.and  the 
people  looked  to  his  successor  to  fill  the  blank  left  by  the 
departure  of  their  trusted  leader  and  lawgiver,  a  communication 
was  made  to  Joshua  by  God,  either  by  direct  revelation  or 
through  the  medium  of  the  high  priest.  He  was  told  to 
commence  his  labours  by  leading  the  host  across  the  river 
Jardan,  which  separated  them  from  the  chief  portion  of  their 
promised  inheritance  ;  the  boundaries  of  the  future  kingdom 
were  pomted  out,  from  the  desert  of  Arabia  to  the  mountains 
of  Lebanon  which  they  could  discern  in  the  far  north,  from 
the  Mediterranean  Sea  to  the  river  Euphrates  in  the  distant 
east  ;  all  should  be  theirs.  "There  shall  not  any  man,"  says 
God,  "  be  able  to  stand  before  thee  all  the  days  of  thy  life  ;  as 
I  was  with  Moses,  so  will  I  be  with  thee  :  I  will  not  fail  thee» 
nor  forsake  thee.  Be  strong  and  of  a  good  courage."  His 
success  was  certain  if  he  governed  his  conduct  by  the  Divine 
command,  and  obeyed  the  book  of  the  law  which  Moses  had 
written  for  his  instruction  and  guidance,  and  which  has  been 
preserved  in  the  Pentateuch.  Here  were  the  comfort  and 
assurance  which  were  needed  for  the  arduous  enterprise.  What 
more  could  be  desired  when  God  thus  speaks  to  His  servant? 
*'  Thou  shalt  have  good  success.  Have  not  I  commanded 
thee  ?  Be  not  affrighted,  neither  be  thou  dismayed  ;  for 
the  Lord  thy  God  is  with  thee  whithersoever  thou  goest."  The 
remaining  years  of  Joshua  are  spent  in  carrying  out  God's 
design,  and  proving  his  claim  to  be  the  worthy  successor  of 
Moses,  the  servant  of  the  Lord. 


CHAPTER   II. 

JORDAN    CROSSED. 

Canaan  described—  Encampment  at  Shittim — Number  of  the  people  ;  their 
character  and  spirit — ^Joshua's  plan  of  campaig  i — Jericho  ;  spies  sent 
thither — Rahab — Escape  of  the  spies  and  their  ;ovenant  with  Rahab  ; 
their  report — Preparation  for  crossing  the  Jorda  n — Appeal  to  the  two- 
and-a-half  tribes — The  miraculous  passage  ol  the  river — A  possible 
explanation — Memorials  of  the  event — Circurjcision  renewed — The 
Passover  celebrated. 

The  country  which  was  to  be  occupied  by  the  Israelites  is  now 
so  well  known  owing  to  the  graphic  descriptions  of  modern 
travellers,  and  the  valuable  publications  of  the  surveys  made  by 
the  Palestine  Exploration,  that  a  few  words  on  this  subject  will 
suffice.  What  we  call  Palestine  is  a  district  lying  between  34.30'' 
and  36.30°  east  longitude,  and  31.15°  and  33.15°  north  latitude. 
The  extent  from  north  to  south  is  about  150  miles,  and  that  from 
east  to  west  about  80.  If  we  reckon  the  average  breadth  at  70 
miles,  we  have  an  area  of  10,500  square  miles.  Thus  its  impor- 
tance is  in  no  sense  due  to  its  size.  England  is  nearly  five  times 
as  large,  Scotland  and  Ireland  three  times.  The  area  of  Wales 
is  reckoned  at  7,300  square  miles.  The  Greece  which  plays  such 
a  grand  part  in  the  history  of  mankind  was  but  little  more  than 
twice  the  size  of  Yorkshire.  Palestine  is  divided  into  two  main 
portions  by  the  remarkable  valley  of  the  Jordan,  which  river, 
rising  under  Mount  Hermon  near  Paneas,  or  Csesarea-Philippi, 
flows  through  Lake  Merom  or  Huleh,  thence  to  the  Sea  of 
Galilee,  from  whence,  by  a  course  which  more  than  trebles  the 
actual  distance,  it  passes  to  the  Dead  Sea  where  it  is  lost.  The 
width  of  the  valley  in  which  the  river  runs  varies  considerably, 
being  in  some  places  little  more  than  two  miles  across,  but 


1 6  JOSHUA. 

towards  the  south,  at  what  is  called  the  "  Plain  of  Jordan," 
averaging  some  fourteen  miles.  But  what  makes  this  river  so 
'remarkable  is  the  wonderful  depression  in  which  it  lies  ;  while 
at  Lake  Huleh  it  is  nearly  at  sea  level,  at  its  outlet  into  the  Dead 
Sea,  a  distance  of  less  than  a  hundred  miles,  it  is  1,300  feet 
below  the  level  of  the  Mediterranean,  having  at  its  source  been 
1,080  feet  above  it.  With  the  eastern  division  of  the  country  we 
have  not  much  to  do  at  the  present  time,  as  it  had  already  been 
partially  conquered  in  Moses'  days,  and  given  over  for  a  possession 
to  Reuben,  Gad,  and  Manasseh.  It  was  Western  Palestine  that 
Joshua  had  to  subdue.  This  is  emphatically  a  land  of  moun- 
tains. There  is,  indeed,  a  level  sandy  plain  on  the  coast,  from 
five  to  ten  miles  wide,  and  the  plain  of  Esdraelon  in  the  interior, 
but  speaking  generally,  we  may  say  that  the  Lebanon  range 
runs  through  the  whole  country,  sending  forth  spurs  to  east  and 
west,  and  makies  it  an  intricate  mass  of  hills.  The  central  ridge, 
which  in  its  southern  portion  maintains  its  distinct  character,  as 
it  approaches  the  north  breaks  into  two  branches,  the  left  and 
longest  culminating  in  the  bold  headland  of  Carmel,  the  right 
forming  the  Mount  of  Gilboa."  Yet  further  north  the  Anti- 
lebanon  range  spreads  into  a  vast  table-land  eastwards  beyond 
the  Jordan.  To  come  to  details  :  the  maritime  plain  com- 
mences in  the  north  at  the  defile  of  the  Leontes  or  Litany, 
about  five  miles  north  of  Tyre  ;  here  it  is  of  very  narrow  dimen- 
sions, and  after  some  twenty  miles  it  is  intersected  by  the 
Ladder  of  Tyre,  a  spur  from  Lebanon  which  reaches  the  sea. 
South  of  this  it  widens  to  some  five  miles,  continuing  till  again 
interrupted  at  Acre  by  the  hills  of  Upper  Galilee.  Here  is  the 
only  natural  harbour  of  the  country,  the  Bay  of  Acre,  closed 
on  the  south  by  the  promontory  of  Carmel.  Below  this  the 
Plain  extends  considerably  in  breadth,  merging  into  the  Plain 
of  Sharon  opposite  Joppa,  just  south  of  which  it  is  again 
narrowed  by  the  protrusion  of  the  Judsean  mountains.  South 
of  this  comes  Philistia,  an  undulating  country  with  a  breadth  of 
from  nine  to  sixteen  miles,  and  reaching  from  Ekron  to  Gaza,  a 
length  of  thirty-two  miles.  Beyond  this  it  sinks  into  the  desert 
southward  and  westward.  The  mountains  of  Israel  commence 
at  a  point  in  the  Lebanon  range  called  Mount  Sannin,  north- 

*  Here  and  elsewhere  I  am  much  indebted  to  Mr.  Henderson's  very 
useful  little  work  on  "Palestine,"  in  Messrs.  Clark's  series  of  "Hand- 
books," which  combines  in  one  view  the  latest  geographical  discoveries. 


JORDAN   CROSSED.  I7 

east  of  Beyrout,  8,500  feet  above  sea  level.     The  hills  as  they 
trend  southwards  decrease  in  height,  till  by  the  Sea  of  Galilee 
they  average  but  900  feet.  They  are  clothed  with  varied  vegeta- 
tion in  strong  contrast  to  the  stern  features  of  the  more  southern 
country,  and  their  rich  verdure  and  mixture  of  greensward  and 
forest  give  a  park-like  aspect  to  the  scenery  which  is  abundantly 
charming.      The   range   is    first   interrupted   by  the    Plain   of 
Esdraelon  or  Jezreel,  which  runs  from  the  Jordan  valley  to  the 
Bay  of  Acre.     Above  this,  the  conical  hill  of  Tabor  stands  in 
grand  isolation,  as  if  broken  off  from  the  rest  of  the  range  by 
some  convulsion  of  nature.     "  Tabor,"  says    Sir  R.  Temple,^ 
**  is  perhaps  the  most  beautiful,  though  not  the  most  striking, 
mountain    in    Palestine.      Though    not    very  high — 2,000  feet 
above  the  sea — it  rises  out  of  the  plain  in  isolated  majesty.    Its 
outline  varies,  of  course,  at  very  short  intervals  of   distancel 
Its  prevailing  shape,  by  which  it  is  usually  recognized,  is  that  of 
a  broad  dome.     Its  sides  are  steep  and  clothed  with  oak  or 
terebinth  forests,  through  which  the  grey  rock  frequently  peeps. 
On  its   summit   are   traces   of  fortifications,   walls,   and  great 
bevelled  stones.     It  clearly  appears  to  have  been  occupied  by  a 
town  when  Joshua's  forces  conquered  the  country."  The  southern 
boundary  of  the  plain  is  formed  on  the  east  by  the  mountains 
of    Gilboa,   which    extend    from    the   hills    of  Samaria,    and 
by   the  long  stretch   of   Carmel    which   touches    the   sea  on 
the  west.      South   of   Esdraelon    the  country  is   a   mass    of 
hills,  among  which  are  noted  the  hill  of  Samaria,  and  Ebal 
and   Gerizim,   between    which   is   the   fair  vale   of   Shechem. 
South  again  we  come  on  Shiloh  an"d  Bethel,  which,  with  many 
other  localities,  we  shall  have  occasion  to  notice  hereafter  ;  and 
ten  miles  further  we  arrive  at  Jerusalem,  which  stands  in  its 
unique  situation  2,500  feet  above  the  sea.     It  conveys  a  vivid 
impression  of  the  small  size  of  the  country  with  which  we  are 
concerned,  when  we  consider  that  the  distance  between  Samaria 
and  Jerusalem,  the  rival  capitals  of  later  history,  is  only  thirty- 
five  miles,  not  half  as  far  as  that  between  York  and  Lancaster. 
South  of  Jerusalem  the  land  gradually  rises,  till  at  Hebron, 
twenty  miles  off,  the  height  is  3,500  feet.     Thence  it  sinks  by 
degrees  into  the  desert  plateau.     At  the  slope  of  these  hills  a 
great  valley  is  formed,  which  is  watered  by  the  drainage  from 
the  high  land.     This  is  known  as  the  Negeb,  or  South-country. 
*  "  Palestine  Illustrated,"  209  f. 
3 


1 8  JOSHUA. 

From  the  central  backbone  valleys  run  eastwards  to  the  Jordan 
and  westwards  to  the  Mediterranean.  Some  few  of  these  hold 
perennial  streams,  but  most  are  watercourses  only  in  the  rainy 
seasons,  being  at  other  times  rocky  channels  with  a  very  scanty 
supply  of  verdure.  The  Judaean  hills  fall  in  gentle  steppes  on 
the  westward  towards  Philistia,  forming  what  is  called  the 
Shephelah  or  lowland.  The  above  description  gives  a  general 
impression  of  the  physical  features  of  Western  Palestine  ;  more 
definite  details  will  be  found  in  the  accounts  of  the  territories 
allotted  to  the  tribes. 

As  regards  the  fauna  of  the  country,  some  of  the  animals  once 
common  are  found  no  longer.  The  lion,  bear,  and  wild  bull  are 
extinct.  But  the  ibex,  or  wild  goat,  roebuck,  hart,  wild  boar, 
leopard,  hyaena,  wolf,  jackal,  still  exist.  And  the  flora  is  still 
the  same  as  in  these  early  days.  The  vine,  olive,  fig,  and  various 
fruits— indeed,  all  "  the  trees  mentioned  in  the  Old  Testament 
are,  without  exception,  still  found  in  Palestine.  The  oaks  that 
sheltered  the  patriarchs  and  their  tents  are  of  three  kinds.  The 
famous  terebinth  (pistachio)  can  still  show  individual  trees  of 
remarkable  beauty.  The  acacia,  or  shittim,  which  suppHed 
wood  for  the  tabernacle,  is  common  to  this  day.  The  juniper, 
under  which  the  prophet  rested,  is  the  Retem  broom  (genista), 
and  is  reported  as  hghting  up  the  desert  with  white  blossoms. 
The  locust-tree,  the  pods  of  which  are  believed  to  have  been  the 
husks  eaten  by  the  prodigal,  is  often  found.  The  balm  of  Gilead 
and  Engediisidentified  with  the  zakkum,  from  the  berries  of  which 
a  healing  oil  is  extracted  ;  and  the  camphire  of  the  Canticle  with 
the  Henna,  whence  pink  dye  is  obtained  for  personal  adornment. 
Other  trees,  as  the  sycamore,  the  ash,  the  plane,  the  elder,  the 
hawthorn,  the  arbutus,  the  tamarisk,  may  be  mentioned."' 

The  Israelites  were  now  encamped  on  the  Plains  of  Moab  at 
Abel-Shittim,  a  place  so  named  from  the  acacia  trees  which  grew 
there,  and  which  are  now  found  throughout  the  whole  district, 
but  which  probably  had  not  been  seen  in  such  profusion  since 
the  host  had  left  the  wilderness  of  Sinai.  At  this  spot,  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Jordan,  the  mountains  on  both  sides  retire,  leaving 
on  the  east  bank  a  plain  of  some  five  miles  in  width,  corre- 
sponding to  the  plain  of  Jordan  across  the  river.  Here  in  a 
veritable  oasis  extending  to  the  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea  the  people 
had  pitched  their  huge  camp,  of  black  tents,  which  looked  across 
*  "Palestine  Illustrated,"  120,  121. 


JORDAN  CROSSED.  I9 

the  Jordan  to  the  luxuriant  park  of  Jericho.  The  encampment 
must  necessarily  have  been  of  very  large  extent.  The  number 
of  the  Israelites  who  originally  took  part  in  the  Exodus  is 
reckoned  at  600,000  "  that  were  men "  ;  this  would  imply  a 
grand  total  of  some  two  millions.  In  the  census  taken  at  Sinai 
during  the  second  year  of  the  Wandering  the  number  of  able- 
bodied  men  was  603,550,  exclusive  of  the  Levites,  whose  males 
amounted  to  22,000.  The  last  numbering  made  just  before  the 
invasion  showed  a  diminution,  there  being  now  only  601,730 
males,  omitting  the  Levites  who  had  increased  by  700.  But  taking 
the  computation  at  the  lowest  figure,  and  allowing  the  women 
and  children  to  be  four  times  as  many  as  the  men,  the  host 
gathered  on  the  Plain  of  Acacias  (Ghor  es  Safieh)  must  have 
amounted  nearly  to  two  and  a  half  millions  of  souls.  Of  these 
the  very  elderly,  men  of  sixty  and  upwards,  had  been  reared  in 
Egypt,  but  the  bulk  of  the  people  had  been  born  and  grown  up 
in  the  wilderness,  and  had  profited  by  the  stern  discipline  of 
their  hard  life.  They  had  come  forth  from  Egypt  a  horde  of 
slaves,  spirit-broken  by  oppression  and  injustice,  enervated  in 
some  cases  by  the  luxuriousness  of  Goshen,  enfeebled  in  others 
by  labours  beyond  their  strength.  But  the  pilgrimage  in  the 
desert  had  braced  their  energies  and  taught  them  many  needful 
lessons.  They  had  learned  obedience  by  the  things  which  they 
suffered  ;  their  dependence  upon  God  and  their  trust  in  His  care 
had  been  largely  confirmed.  They  felt  themselves  agents  in  a 
mighty  undertaking  wherein  to  be  blindly  submissive  was  to  suc- 
ceed. A  law  had  been  given  them  which  touched  every  relation 
of  life  in  minutest  detail.  They  had  becom.e  an  organized  com- 
munity, knit  together  by  common  interests  and  institutions  and 
worship.  Tried  by  adversity,  and  trained  by  hardship,  conscious 
of  a  Divine  mission,  and  enthusiastic  in  pursuit  of  their  great 
idea,  the  Israelites  were  gathered  together  under  their  leader, 
full  of  hope,  courage,  zeal,  and  devotion. 

The  distant  view  of  Jericho  must  have  been  then  in  its  chief 
features  such  as  it  is  now.  Though  the  vegetation  has  changed 
in  character,  yet  the  thick  belt  of  evergreen  trees  was  there, 
and  behind  them  the  brown  mountain,  with  its  sharp  outline  and 
scarped  sides,  standing  apart  from  the  neighbouring  range  which 
flanks  the  upland  of  Judaea,  and  rising  a  thousand  feet  above 
the  plain.* 

*  "Palestine  Illustrated,"  lOj. 


20  JOSHUA. 

The  usual  course  of  invaders  of  Palestine  was  to  make  their 
attack  from  the  south.  The  Egyptian  forays  had  always  been  so 
conducted.  Nearly  forty  years  before  this  time  the  Israelites 
themselves  had  made  an  unsuccessful  attempt  in  that  direction. 
There  were  many  reasons  which  rendered  it  inexpedient  to  repeat 
this  experiment.  The  country  was  well  prepared  for  resistance 
in  that  quarter  ;  there  were  innumerable  strongly  fortified  towns 
to  bar  progress  ;  the  whole  mass  of  enemies  stood  in  the  way, 
with  reinforcements  to  any  extent  at  theirback  ;  new  difficulties 
would  have  arisen  at  every  moment,  and  each  victory  won  at 
severe  cost  would  have  only  preluded  new  battles,  and  drained 
the  resources  of  the  invaders  who  had  no  reserves  whence  to 
draw  fresh  supplies.  Joshua's  plan,  whether  originating  from 
Divine  suggestion  or  contrived  by  his  own  natural  and  acquired 
skill,  showed  consummate  generalship.  He  designed  to  turn  his 
enemies'  flank,  to  take  their  fortresses  in  the  rear,  and  by  a  bold 
stroke  to  break  through  their  centre,  dividing  the  hostile  forces, 
and  with  his  whole  strength  attacking  them  in  detail.  Defended 
by  the  Dead  Sea  and  the  deep  valley  of  the  Jordan,  with  its  rapid 
and  unfordable  stream,  the  eastern  frontier  was  regarded  by  the 
Canaanites  as  tolerably  secure,  and  they  expected  no  invasion 
from  that  quarter.  This  false  security  offered  the  opportunity 
required.  Here  was  a  weak  point  which  might  be  profitably 
attacked. 

To  carry  out  this  manoeuvre  the  city  of  Jericho  must  first  be 
captured.  It  would  have  been  the  height  of  imprudence  to 
m.irch  into  the  interior,  leaving  this  formidable  fortress  with  its 
military  population  unsubdued  in  the  rear.  But  before  Jericho 
could  be  reached,  the  Jordan  must  be  crossed.  However 
conscious  of  Divine  protection  and  guidance,  Joshua  omitted 
no  precaution  which  became  a  careful  commander.  He  had 
himself  had  experience  of  the  utility  of  making  a  reconnois- 
sance  of  a  country  before  attempting  its  invasion  ;  he  therefore, 
as  a  preHminary  measure  on  the  present  occasion,  sent  forth  two 
young  men  as  spies,  with  the  utmost  secrecy,  directing  them  to 
make  their  way  to  Jericho,  to  examine  carefully  the  topography, 
and  the  strength  of  the  fortifications,  and  to  discover  the  feelings 
and  temper  of  the  inhabitants.  This  city  stood  about  six  miles 
west  of  the  Jordan,  in  a  most  fertile  plain,  surrounded  by  groves 
of  palm-trees,  whence  it  derived  its  name  of  the  "  city  of 
fragrance."     It  had  been    built,  or   at   any  rate  had  risen  to 


JORDAN   CROSSED.  21 

importance,  since  the  destruction  of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah, 
^rmdjwas  now  of  vast  extent  and  of  considerable  wealth,  lying 
'on  the  caravan  road  between  Arabia  and  Damascus,  engaging 
in  trade  with  the  East,  and  having  foundries  of  brass  and 
large  stores  of  the  precious  metals.  Situated  on  the  very 
frontiers  of  Palestine,  it  commanded  the  two  chief  passes 
which  led  into  the  interior,  of  which  one  branched  off  to 
Jerusalem,  the  other  north-west  toward  Michmash  and  Bethel. 
"  It  was  thus  the  key  of  Palestine  to  any  invader  from  this 
quarter."  ^  The  wretched  little  village  of  Riha  or  Eriha,  which 
has  been  supposed  to  stand  on  the  ruins  of  this  stately  town,  is 
more  than  a  mile  south  of  the  true  site.  This  has  been  identi- 
fied by  Conder  at  Ain-es-Sultan,  "Elisha's  fountain,"  which 
rises  from  the  foot  of  the  limestone  range  at  the  back  of  the 
city,  and  is  the  cause  of  the  rich  luxuriance  of  vegetation  which 
renders  this  tropical  region  so  remarkable.  Of  the  view  of 
Jericho  from  the  mountain  Quarantaria,  which  rises  imme- 
diately behind,  and  overlooks  the  site.  Sir  Richard  Temple  ^ 
thus  speaks  :  "It  is  the  morning  time,  and  the  sun  has  mounted 
not  very  far  above  the  Eastern  horizon.  The  prevailing  tints 
of  the  sky  are  blue  blended  with  amber.  The  mountain  range 
of  Moab  is  in  shadow,  and  stands  up  in  violet-grey  against  the 
sky.  At  its  feet  is  the  northern  end  of  the  Dead  Sea,  catching 
the  sunlight  and  glistening  in  a  silver  sheet.  On  this  side  of 
the  salt  water  is  a  long  strip  of  desert  land  with  reddish  hues. 
Then  comes  the  broad  belt  of  sylvan  verdure,  which  girdles 
Jericho  as  with  a  zone  of  emeralds.  In  front  of  this,  and  near 
to  the  foreground,  though  still  much  below  the  eye,  are  the 
fountain-reservoirs,  the  chief  of  which  is  a  small  sheet  of  water 
in  which  the  sky  is  mirrored.  From  these  the  principal  water 
channels  are  seen  wandering  in  bright  streaks  among  the  over- 
shadowing woods."  In  another  place  he  speaks  of  the  copious 
spring,  identifying  the  spot,  "  which  during  all  the  past  ages  has 
bubbled  up  inexhaustibly  from  the  bowels  of  the  mountain,  and 
has  for  several  thousand  years  endowed  the  plains  of  Jordan 
with  fertility.  This  is  the  water  which  the  prophet  Elisha 
blessed.  This  is  the  veritable  source  of  that  prosperity  which 
made  Jericho  one  of  the  gardens  of  the  East,  and  the  envy  of 
surrounding  nations.     It  isno.v  calied  In-  the  n.itives  the  Sultan 

'  Stanley.  "  S=n:ii  and  Palestine,"  305. 
=  "  r.iL-..i  M-  lilustrated."  11. 


22  JOSHUA; 

Fountain.  There  is  another  spring  called  the  Fountain  of  Duk, 
an  old  Jewish  name  probably.  These  are  the  very  fountain? 
which  gave  life  and  wealth  to  a  district  where  important  events 
occurred  in  the  history  both  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament. 
They  are,  after  the  lapse  of  ages,  still  copious,  and  are  dis- 
charging the  same  functions  for  agriculture  to-day  as  they  did 
4,500  years  ago."  ^ 

Having  received  their  commission,  the  spies  set  forth  on  the 
third  day  of  the  month  Nisan,  which  would  fall  in  our  April. 
Swimming  across  the  river,  they  made  their  way  to  Jericho, 
arriving  there  towards  evening  before  the  gates  were  shut. 
Here  they  were  received  in  the  house  of  one  Rahab,  a  harlot, 
whither  they  had  been  directed  as  a  place  where  guests  were 
entertained,  and  where  they  could  lodge  without  exciting  sus- 
picion. Or  they  may  possibly  have  met  Rahab  outside  the 
city,  or  traversing  the  streets,^  heard  from  her  where  her  house 
was  situated,  and  agreed  with  her  to  conceal  them,  if  necessary, 
during  their  short  sojourn.  Her  house  was  built  upon  the  city 
wall,  like  that  at  Damascus  from  which  St.  Paul  was  let  down, 
and  offered  facilities  for  effecting  escape,  should  danger  menace. 
There  is  no  reason  for  disputing  the  degraded  condition  of  this 
woman.  The  term  here  used,  both  in  the  Hebrew  and  the 
Greek,  and  the  references  to  her  in  the  New  Testament, ^  leave 
no  doubt  on  the  subject.  That  she  was  an  innkeeper  also  is 
very  probable  ;  in  this  case  the  spies  would  naturally  have 
repaired  to  her  abode,  not  only  as  a  place  of  public  entertain- 
ment, but  a  resort  where  they  might  expect  best  to  gather  the 
state  of  general  opinion.  The  encampment  of  the  Israehtes  on 
the  plains  of  Moab  was,  of  course,  well  known  to  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Jericho  ;  and  the  arrival  of  these  two  strangers,  and 
their  reception  in  Rahab's  house,  were  soon  noised  abroad. 
The  report  reached  the  ears  of  the  king,  already  alarmed  at 
the  successes  of  Israel  in  the  eastern  district,  and  suspicious  of 

»  "  Palestine  Illustrated,"  109.  =  Prov.  vii.  9  f . 

3  Heb.  xi.  31  ;  James  ii.  25.  Josephus  ("Ant."  v.  i.  2)  and  other 
writers,  followed  by  some  modern  commentators,  have  endeavoured  to 
vindicate  Rahab  from  the  charge  of  harlotry.  But  the  langna^e  of  tiie 
original  forbids  any  other  interpretation.  That  her  name,  with  those  of 
other  notorious  women,  occurs  in  the  genealogy  of  Christ,  is  explained  by 
St.  Jerome  :  "  Ut  qui  propter  peccatores  venerat,  de  peccatoribus  uascens 
omnia  peccata  deletet." 


JORDAN  CROSSED.  23 

all  who  might  come  from  that  quarter,  and  he  sent  officers  to 
Rahab,  bidding  her  bring  forth  the  men  that  were  come  to  her, 
for  their  object  was  to  spy  out  the  country.     Rahab,  vicious  and 
degraded  as  she  may  have  been,  was  not  wholly  without  better 
impulses,  and  possessed  a  fair  knowledge  of  the  events  which 
had  befallen  the  Hebrews  from  the  Exodus  unto  this  present 
time.     This  information  she  may  have  gathered  from  the  traders 
and  merchants  who  frequented  the  place  and  congregated  at 
her  house,  which  stood  conveniently  near  the  great  gate  of  the 
city.     The  intelligence  of  the  miracles  which  had  attended  the 
progress  of  the   Israelites  had  sunk  into  her  heart  and  pro- 
duced a  reverence  for  the  Lord  Jehovah,  and  a  profound  con- 
viction that  He  had  destined    the    land    of   Canaan  for  the 
possession    of    His    chosen    people.     To  resist  the  invaders 
seemed  to  her  both  impious  and  useless.     Perhaps  in  all  the 
city  she  alone  regarded  the  strangers  with  favour ;  and  when 
the  king  demanded  their  surrender,  her  only  thought  was  how 
'best  to  secure  their  present  safety,  and  provide  for  their  sub- 
sequent escape.     She  was  a  woman  fertile  in  resources,  and  of 
great  presence  of  mind.     Being  engaged  in  the  manufacture 
and  dyeing  of  linen,  she  had  used  the  flat  roof  of  her  house  as 
a  drying  ground  for  stalks  of  flax,  the  harvest  of  which  had 
been  lately  gathered.     Under  separate  heaps  of  this  flax  she 
hid  the  spies— a  matter  easy  to  effect  with  such  material,  the 
plant  in  that  country  growing  more  than  a  yard  in  height,  with 
stalks  as  thick  as  a  cane.     Having  completely  concealed  her 
visitors'  presence,  she  went  out  to  the  king's  messengers,  and 
coolly  told  them  that  it  v/as  quite  true  that  two  men  had  amved 
at  her  house,  but  she  did  not  know  who  they  v/ere  or  whence 
they  came  ;  she  added  that  they  left  her  just  before  the  gate 
was  shut  in  the  evening,  and  she  was  quite  ignorant  of  their 
further  mox-ements.     *'  Pursue  after  them  quickly,"  she  enjoined 
with    apparent   zeal   and  good  faith  ;  "  for  ye    shall  overtake 
them."     The  lies   which   she   uttered  were  no  offence  to  her 
iinenlightened  conscience.     Such  deceit  in  a  good  cause  and 
under    pressure  of  circumstances    is    constantly  excused   by 
a    worldly    morality.     The    severe    standard    of    Christianity 
alone  disallows   to  do  evil  that  good   may  come,  and  denies 
that  God's  cause   needs    man's   sinful    manipulation.     Misled 
by  her  mendacious   intelligence,  the    officers    hurried  to   the 
fiords  -of  the  Jordan,  thinking  to  intercept  the  strangers  as  they 


24  JOSHUi%. 

returned  to  the  camp.  Meantime  the  gates  which  had  been 
opened  to  admit  the  departure  of  the  king's  messengers  had  been 
immediately  closed  again,  and  were  now  so  carefully  watched 
that  it  was  impossible  for  the  spies  to  escape  through  them.  To 
wait  till  morning  would  be  to  risk  almost  certain  discovery. 
The  strangers  must  be  sent  away  secretly  and  by  night.  When 
all  was  quiet,  and  the  whole  city  was  locked  in  sleep,  Rahab 
stole  up  to  the  place  where  the  two  Israelites  were  concealed, 
and  urged  them  to  depart  at  once  and  hide  themselves  in  the 
mountains  till  the  pursuit  relaxed,  and  then  to  make  their  way- 
back  to  their  own  people.  But  before  detailing  her  plan  for 
their  escape,  she  made  a  very  remarkable  confession  of  her 
faith  in  the  God  of  Israel,  and  her  confident  expectation  that 
the  land  would  be  conquered  by  the  Hebrews.  The  intelligence 
of  God's  miraculous  interposition  at  the  Red  Sea  and  else- 
where, the  utter  defeat  and  annihilation  of  Sihon  and  Og,  and 
now  tlie  rumours  concerning  the  might  and  multitude  of  the 
host  encamped  across  the  Jordan,  had  worked  in  her  hearty 
and  produced  faith  in.  Jehovah.  In  her  countrymen,  she 
asserts,  these  marvellous  events  had  occasioned  only  panic 
and  astonishment.  '^Your  terror  is  fallen  upon  us,"  she  says, 
"  and  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  land  faint  and  melt  away  before 
you."  Being  perfectly  assured  that  Jericho  would  fall  into  the 
hands  of  the  invaders,  she  entreats  the  spies  to  return  the 
kindness  v/hich  she  has  shown  to  them  by  sparing  herself  and 
her  father's  family  when  the  city  is  taken.  This  they  readily 
engaged  to  do  on  condition  that  all  those  whom  she  wished  to 
save  should  be  gathered  together  under  her  roof,  and  should  on 
no  account  go  forth  from  her  doors  when  the  capture  was 
effected-  The  harlot's  house,  as  we  have  said,  was  built 
against  the  city  wall,  the  top  storey  rising  above  it  and  over- 
hanging it.  From  a  window  thus  placed  she  let  the  men  down 
by  a  cord,  and  having  whispered  to  them  her  last  instructions, 
she  was  assured  that  they  would  loyally  keep  faith  with  her  ; 
and  in  order  that  her  house  might  be  distinguished  in  the  sack 
of  the  town,  they  desired  her  to  fasten  in  the  window  the  cord 
used  in  their  descent,  which  being  dyed  of  a  bright  scarlet 
colour  could  not  escape  notice.  Turning  their  backs  on  the 
doomed  city,  the  young  men  fled  to  the  mountains  on  the  north 
or  west,  which  in  their  cavernous  recesses  offered  many  safe 
hiding-places.     Most  naturally  they  would  seek   Quarantaria* 


JORDAN   CROSSED.  2$ 

which  "  Stands  up  right  behind  Jericho,  and  with  its  mass  of 
tawny  or  whitish  rock  forms  a  background  to  the  mounds  that 
mark  the  site  of  the  ancient  city.  Its  scarped  sides  and 
reddish  ochre  colour  contrast  with  the  fohage  and  verdant 
gardens  near  its  base."  '  This  mountain  became  an  abode  of 
hermits  in  later  years,  when  tradition  pointed  it  out  as  the  scenr 
of  our  Lord's  forty  days'  fast  and  temptation.  The  numerous 
caves,  most  of  which  are  of  primeval  origin,  must  have  offered 
a  ready  shelter  to  these  anchorites  in  Christian  days,  as  they 
did  to  Joshua's  spies  at  this  time.  These  Israelites,  after  re- 
maining there  during  the  next  day,  made  their  way  back  to 
their  oiuntrymen,  having  effected  their  business  within  three 
days.j  On  their  return  they  reported  to  Joshua  what  they  had^ 
seen  and  heard.  Jericho  was  a  rich  and  populous  city,  strongly 
fortified  with  high  and  solid  walls,  and  capable  of  offering  an 
obstinate  resistance;  but  the  inhabitants  had  lost  all  spirit,  and 
were  sunk  in  hopeless  despondency ;  and  in  fact  such  was  the 
I  general  feeling  throughout  the  country^JWe  know  from  other 
sources  =*  that  the  present  time  was  most  favourable  to  the 
invaders.  The  constant  wars  between  the  Hittites  and  the 
Egyptians  had  brought  much  misery  on  the  Canaanitish  cities, 
which  were  plundered  and  sacked  by  both  parties,  as  occasion 
offered.  There  could  be  no  united  opposition  to  the  invader  in 
a  country  exhausted  by  these  long-continued  hostilities  ;  and 
though  in  face  of  imminent  danger  some  of  the  petty  kings,  as 
we  shall  see,  combined  in  an  attempt  at  resistance,  there  was 
no  general  rising  of  the  whole  country  against  the  aggressive 
strangers  ;  and  Joshua's  tactics,  of  crushing  his  enemies  in 
detail,  was  rendered  practicable  and  successful. 

The  first  step  in  the  invasion  was  the  crossing  of  the  Jordan. 
As  a  preliminary  to  this  undertaking,  Joshua  removed  the  en- 
campment from  Shittim  to  the  bank  of  the  river.  This  was 
done  with  the  utmost  expedition  ;  and  as  the  distance  was  not 
great,  some  five  miles  at  most,  by  the  tenth  of  the  month  all 
was  ready,  preparations  were  completed,  and  stores  of  food 
provided,  as  the  miraculous  supply  of  manna  would  cease 
when  once  the  river  was  crossed.  There  was  one  other  matter 
to  be  arranged  previously.  An  appeal  had  to  be  made  to  the 
Reubenites,  the  Gadites,  and  half  the  tribe  of  Manasseh,  who 
had  been  allowed  to  settle  in  Gilead  and  Bashan,  the  territory 
*  Temple,  no.  »  See.,  e.^.,  Prof.  Sayce,  "The  Hittites,"  pp.  24  f 


26  JOSHUA. 

conquered  by  Moses  on  the  eastern  side  of  Jordan.  These 
were  now  reminded  by  Joshua  of  the  engagement  by  which 
they  had  bound  themselves  to  help  their  brethren  in  their 
invasion  of  Western  Palestine,  and  to  see  them  estabhshed  in 
their  possessions  before  they  finally  entered  upon  their  own  in- 
heritance.^ This  they  cheerfully  consented  to  do,  stipulating 
that  their  wives  and  children  should  be  left  safely  guarded  in 
their  new  abodes,  while  the  picked  warriors  among  them  shared 
the  dangers  of  the  campaign.  Their  answer  to  the  leader's 
appeal  was  marked  by  loyalty  and  fraternal  affection.  "Ac- 
cording as  we  hearkened  unto  Moses  in  all  things,  so  will  we 
hearken  unto  thee  :  only  the  Lord  thy  God  be  with  thee,  as  He 
was  with  Moses.  Whosoever  he  be  that  shall  rebel  against  thy 
commandment,  and  shall  not  hearken  unto  thy  words  in  all  that 
thou  commandest  him,  he  shall  be  put  to  death  ;  only  be  strong 
and  of  a  good  courage."  In  effect,  leaving  some  70,000  men  to 
protect  their  homes  and  flocks,  the  two  and  a  half  tribes  sent 
40,000  soldiers  to  the  war. 

The  requisite  orders  were  transmitted  to  the  host  through  the 
appointed  officers  [shoteriyn)^  who  exercised  judicial  functions, 
and  likewise  attended  to  the  duties  of  the  commissariat.  The 
people  were  prepared  ;  at  daybreak  on  this  tenth  of  Nisan 
(probably  the  first  day  of  the  week,  as  they  rested  on  the 
previous  day,  which  may  have  been  the  Sabbath),  they  stood 
expectant,  looking  blankly  on  the  turbid  yellow  waters  which 
rolled  between  them  and  the  Promised  Land.  It  was  now,  as 
we  have  seen,  the  flax  and  barley  harvest ;  the  hot  weather  had 
set  in,  and  the  snows  of  Lebanon  and  Hermon  were  melting 
fast  and  sending  a  huge  volume  of  water  down  the  deep  channel 
of  the  Jordan.  The  river  bed  itself  is  little  more  than  thirty 
yards  across  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Jericho,  and  usually  the. 
water  is  so  shallow  that  one  can  wade  across  it  with  the  greatest 
ease  ;  but  on  each  side  of  this  bed  is  a  wider  channel  called  the 
Zor  ('•  depression  "),  which  is  only  filled  at  flood  time,  when 
Jordan  overflows  its  usual  banks.  The  river  at  such  times  is  a 
mile  wide  and  of  great  depth.  Such  was  its  condition  on  this 
momentous  day.  How  was  it  to  be  crossed  by  this  hetero- 
geneous host  ?  The  pillar  of  cloud  had  ceased  to  guide  their 
movements,  but  they  were  still  led  by  God.  He  had  warned 
Joshua  that  he  was  to  conduct  the  people  over  the  river,  and 
*  Numb,  xxxii.  20  fF.  ;  Deut.  iii.  18  ft 


JORDAN  CROSSED.  27 

the  servant  of  the  Lord  had  but  to  obey,  leaving  the  way  to 
Him  who  directed  the  march.     So,  brought  face  to  face  with 
their  promised  possession,  the  people  waited  the  summons  to 
advance.     No  longer  now  a  horde   of  slaves,  as  when  their 
fathers  fled  from  Egypt,  full  of  fears,  trembling  at  the  sight  of 
arms,  shrinking  in  abject  terror  at  the  journey  that  lay  before 
them,  the  host  encamped  at  this  time  on  the  river's  bank  had 
learned  much  in  their  long  pilgrimage,  had  seen  hard  service, 
had  been  tried  in  war.  and  endured  hardship,  and  proved  them- 
selves vahant  soldiers,  and  now  were  willing  and  eager  to  go 
whithersoever  Joshua  might  lead   them.      So  as  they  looked 
across  the  torrent  to  the  green  terraces  on  the  other  side,  they 
despaired  not ;  they  remembered  the  passage  of  the  Red  Sea, 
which  some  among  them   had  seen,  of  which  all  had  often 
heard,  and  they  had  trust  in   their  leader  and  faith  in  God. 
Would  not  the  Lord  work  wonders  for  them  as  He  had  done 
for  their  fathers  ?     Would  not  His  hand  be  over  Joshua  as  it 
was  over  Moses  ?     On  them  thus  expectant  came  the  word  : 
"  Sanctify  yourselves  ;  for  to-morrow  the  Lord  will  do  wonders 
among  you."     It  is  not  mere  ceremonial  purification  that  is 
meanr,  but  the  cleansing  of  the  conscience,  and  the  turning  of 
the  heart  to  God  in  faith,  so  as  to  be  ready  to  receive  duly  the 
subsequent  manifestation  of  God's  love  and  power.     This  was 
the  people's  part.     And  to  Joshua  it  was  said  :  "  This  day  will  I 
begin  to  magnify  thee  in  the  sight  of  all  Israel,  that  they  may 
know  that  as  I  was  with  Moses,  so  I  will  be  with  thee."     We 
gather  from  what  is   subsequently   said    (iv.    10)    that   Moses 
had  communicated  to  his  successor  certain  directions  concern- 
ing the  passage,  though  they  are  nowhere  recorded   in   our 
present  narrative.     By  what  means  the  swollen  stream  was  to 
be  crossed,  this  was  not  expressly  divulged  ;  only  the  order  was 
given,  that  as  they  had  hitherto  followed  the  guidance  of  the 
pillar'of  cloud,  so,  now  that  that  was  withdrawn,  they  were  to 
follow  the  ark  ;  but  it  was  also  enjoined  that  they  were  not  to 
press  irreverently  upon  this  special  symbol  of  God's  presence, 
but  to  keep  at   a  respectful  distance  from  it,  only  watching 
where   it  was   carried,   and    pursuing  its   track   without   fear 
whithersoever  it  should  lead,  though  this  was  a  way  which  they 
had  not  passed  heretofore.      Now  the  ark  is  taken  from  the 
tabernacle  by  the  priests,  its  appointed  guardians,  and  by  them 
solemnly  borne  to  the  margin  of  the  river  ;  the  people  watch- 


28  JOSHUA. 

ing  from  their  higher  position,  when  they  see  the  procession 
approach  the  water  some  half-mile  distant,  arise  and  follow  the 
symbol  of  Jehovah's  presence  ;  for  they  have  been  told  that 
when  the  feet  of  the  priests  that  bear  the  ark  shall  be  dipped 
in  the  waters  of  Jordan,  a  way  shall  be  opened  for  the  people 
to  pass  over.  Down  the  steep  slope  the  strange  procession 
wound,  the  host  following  wondering,  expectant,  awestruck. 
Without  stay  or  hindrance  the  priests,  silently,  resolutely  press 
on  ;  they  reach  the  rushing  stream  ;  their  feet  are  wetted  by 
the  turbid  waters  ;  when,  lo  !  a  wonder  ensued  ;  the  river  bed 
began  to  dry  up  ;  the  stream  shrunk  to  its  natural  channel,  and 
then  deserted  even  this  ;  the  waters  that  had  come  hurrying 
tumultuously  from  the  north  on  their  right  were  cut  off,  the 
supply  thence  ceased,  and  those  that  were  flowing  down  the 
steep  incline  towards  the  Dead  Sea  soon  passed  away,  leaving 
the  whole  channel  bare  and  dry.  Some  impediment  had  sud- 
denly obstructed  the  river's  course  far  away,  near  the  city 
Adam  in  the  district  Zarthan,  where  the  river  Jabbok  enters 
the  valley  or  where  now  the  ford  Damieh  exists,  eighteen  miles 
above  the  passage  of  Jericho.  Thus  a  huge  breadth  of  the 
river's  bed  was  dried ;  at  any  point  in  this  space  the  river  could 
be  crossed.  The  narrator  speaks  of  the  occurrence  as  distinctly 
miraculous.  There  is  no  natural  agent  mentioned,  no  strong 
east  wind  to  dry  the  passage,  as  in  the  analogous  miracle  at  the 
Red  Sea.  Our  account  reads  :  '*  The  waters  which  came  down 
from  above  stood,  and  rose  up  in  one  heap  ;  and  those  that 
went  down  towards  the  Sea  of  the  Arabah,  even  the  Salt  Sea, 
were  wholly  cut  off."  If  we  look  for  the  secondary  cause  of 
this  phenomenon,  we  may  perhaps  consider  it  to  have  been 
occasioned  in  the  following  way.  At  a  point  where  the  valley 
is  most  contracted,  and  the  mountains  on  either  side  approach 
most  closely  the  river  bed,  a  fall  of  cliff  took  place,  which  for  a 
time  completely  blocked  the  course  of  the  stream.  If  the 
channel  here  was  tolerably  level,  and  the  valley  widened  above 
the  obstruction  so  as  to  allow  the  imprisoned  waters  to  expand 
in  the  form  of  a  lake,  the  dam  need  not  have  been  of  great 
height  ;  and  once  established  it  would  soon  be  increased  and 
strengthened  by  the  accumulation  of  debris  brought  down  the 
stream.  As  long  as  this  obstacle  remained,  the  waters  below  it 
would  fail  and  be  cut  off;  and  many  miles  of  the  bed  being 
emptied,  the  great  host  could  cross  it  at  various  points,  and  thus 


JORDAN  CROSSED.  29 

in  a  comparatively  short  time  effect  the  passage.  At  the  same 
time,  it  must  be  noted  that  modern  research  has  failed  to  find 
any  token  of  sucl^^  catastrophe  having  taken  place,  though  that 
fact  is  not  absolutely  adversative,  as  the  annual  iioods  would 
naturally  have  occasioned  immense  changes  and  modifications 
in  the  river  bed,  and  the  wear  and  tear  of  three  thousand  addi- 
tional years  must  be  considered.  If  this  is  the  natural  ex- 
planation of  the  event,  the  miraculous  character  of  the  matter 
is  seen  in  the  providential  ordering  of  the  catastrophe  at  the 
particular  time  and  place,  and  in  the  Divine  foreknowledge 
which  directed  Joshua  when  to  make  the  attempt,  and  antici- 
pated the  mode  in  which  the  result  should  be  obtained.  God 
uses  the  forces  which  He  has  ordained  to  produce  the  effects 
which  He  has  designed  ;  and  it  is  not  wise  for  us  to  represent 
Him  as  interfering  unnecessarily  with  the  order  of  nature.  He 
is  honoured  rather  by  our  recognition  of  His  use  of  the  ordi- 
nary laws  which  He  has  established. 

Now,  at  the  edge  of  the  terrace  wKich  the  flood  had  reached, 
the  priests  stood  bearing  the  ark  ;  near  them  was  Joshua, 
accompanied  by  twelve  men  chosen  one  from  each  tribe. 
Into  the  channel  thus  dried  the  multitude  rushed  ;  the  two  and 
a  half  tribes,  46,000  strong,  preceded  the  host  ;  men,  women, 
children,  cattle,  followed  in  hot  haste  ;  for  a  mile  or  more  the 
river  bed  was  filled  with  this  tumultuous  assemblage,  while  the 
ark  remained  in  its  position  till  the  last  straggler  had  safely 
crossed.  The  time  occupied  in  the  passage  did  not  exceed  a 
few  hours,  as  the  distance  was  not  great,  and  conscious  of  the 
Divine  interposition,  the  people  made  no  unnecessary  delay, 
but  passed  across  with  all  the  speed  possible.  When  all  had 
crossed  in  safety,  the  ark  at  length  was  moved  and  borne  to 
the  opposite  bank  ;  and  then  the  obstacle  that  had  barred  the 
way  of  the  upper  waters  was  removed,  and  the  people  on  the 
western  side  beheld  the  river  suddenly  filling  its  usual  channel, 
then  rising  higher  and  higher  till  it  overflowed  its  banks  as 
before.  Their  trust  in  God  and  their  confidence  in  their  leader 
were  greatly  enhanced  ;  henceforward  they  never  swerved  in 
their  allegiance  :  ''On  that  day  the  Lord  magnified  Joshua  in 
the  sight  of  all  Israel,  and  they  feared  him,  as  they  feared 
Moses,  all  the  days  of  his  hfe."  Down  the  ages  the  memory  ' 
of  the  miracle  was  handed  on  and  celebrated  in  psalm  and 
hymn  : 


^O  JOSHUA, 

**  The  sea  saw  it,  and  fled  ; 
Jordan  was  driven  back.  .  ,  . 
What  aileth  thee,  O  thou  sea,  that  thou  fleest  ? 
Thou,  Jordan,  that  thou  turnest  back  ?"  (f  sa.  cxiv.J 

To  mark  this  great  event,  an  event  as  important  in  its  bearings 
and  results  as  the  passage  of  the  Red  Sea,  two  monuments 
were  erected.  The  twelve  representatives  already  mentioned 
were  ordered  to  set  up  a  cairn  on  the  spot  where  the  priests' 
feet  had  rested  while  the  people  crossed,  and  then  to  take  up 
twelve  huge  stones  from  the  bed  of  the  river  and  arrange  them 
as  a  memorial  in  the  place  where  the  new  camp  was  formed 
after  the  passage.  Such  a  mode  of  commemorating  events  is 
common  in  all  ages  and  lands.  The  obelisks  of  Egypt,  the 
cairns  of  northern  countries,  the  dolmens  of  the  Celts,  are 
cases  in  point.^ 

Thus  on  the  first  day  of  the  week,  the  anniversary  of  the  day 
on  which,  forty  years  before,  the  Israelites  had  been  directed  to 
take  up  the  lambs  for  the  first  Passover  in  Egypt,  and  the  day 
afterwards  made  memorable  by  the  resurrection  of  Joshua's 
great  antitype,  Jesus,  the  people  came  up  from  the  river,  and 
lodged  in  the  Land  of  Promise.  The  encampment  was  fixed  at 
a  place  called,  perhaps  by  anticipation,  Gilgal,  in  the  fertile 
plain  that  lay  between  Jericho  and  the  river,  some  five  miles 
west  of  the  latter  and  two  from  the  city.  The  spot  has  been 
identified  with  the  modern  Tell  Jiljulieh,  where  still  remain 
some  faint  traces  of  ancient  ruins.  It  was  already  marked  out 
by  heathen  superstition  as  a  sacred  locality — the  name,  which 
means  "  a  circle,"  probably  referring  to  the  erection  of  stone 
circles  for  some  purpose  connected  with  pagan  worship,  though 
Joshua  gave  a  new  meaning  to  the  appellation.  Here,  on  a 
rising  ground,  the  camp  was  pitched  and  rudely  fortified  to  fit 
it  to  be  the  headquarters  of  the  people  during  the  progress  of 
further  operations.  No  opposition  had  been  offered  to  the 
crossing.  Paralyzed  by  fear,  or  expecting  no  invasion  during 
the  annual  flood,  which,  as  they  supposed,  put  a  temporarily 
impassable  barrier  between  them  and  the  enemy,  the  people  of 
Jericho  and  its  neighbourhood  had  taken  no  steps  to  resist  the 
strangers'  entrance  into  their  land.     Nothing  would  have  been 

*  Comp.  Gen,  xxviii.  i8  ;  xxxi.  45  ;  xxxv.  14  ;  Josh.  xxiv.  26 ;  i  Sam 
vii.  12. 


JORDAN   CROSSED.  3I 

easier  than  to  cut  off  such  a  rabble  as  they  struggled  out  of  the 
deep  boulder-laden  channel ;  a  few  resolute  men  might  have 
seriously  impeded  the  passage,  and  inflicted  immense  loss,  if 
they  were  unable  wholly  to  check  the  inroad.  Providentially 
nothing  of  this  kind  happened.  Unimpeded,  the  Israehtes 
were  enabled  to  make  good  their  position  on  the  upper  terrace 
of  the  western  bank,  and  to  begin  the  occupation  of  their 
destined  inheritance,  erecting  the  tabernacle  here,  and  making 
Gilgal  the  central  place  of  worship  as  well  as  the  residence  of 
the  multitude  not  actually  engaged  in  military  expeditions. 

The  solemn  pause  before  the  commencement  of  hostilities 
was  to  be  used  in  the  service  of  religion.  The  Passover,  long 
suspended,  must  be  celebrated  again  before  the  people  entered 
upon  the  new  phase  of  their  deliverance.  Twice  only  had  this 
great  memorial  feast  been  held— once  at  the  Exodus  from  Egypt, 
once  at  the  encampment  under  Sinai.  Now  it  was  time  to  gird 
themselves  for  the  conflict  by  taking  the  sacrament  of  redemp- 
tion. Why  it  had  been  neglected  for  so  many  years,  and  that 
under  the  eye  of  the  legislator  himself,  is  hard  to  understand. 
The  uncircumcised,  indeed,  could  not  partake  of  it,  and  the  rite 
of  circumcision  had  been  altogether  omitted  since  the  departure 
from  the  house  of  bondage  ;  but  for  many  years  the  circum- 
cised must  have  constituted  a  large  majority  of  the  host. 
Doubtless  the  abeyance  of  both  circumcision  and  the  Passover 
was  owing  to  the  same  cause,  whatever  it  might  be.  This 
could  not  have  been  from  mere  negligence  and  careless  in- 
difference. Moses  and  other  good  men  would  never  have 
permitted  a  culpable  supineness  to  interfere  with  the  exercise 
of  a  religious  duty.  There  must  have  been  a  moral  cause  for 
the  omission.  If  the  impossibility  of  procuring  material  for 
the  unleavened  cakes  might  have  rendered  the  due  celebration 
of  the  Passover  impracticable,  no  such  impediment  obstructed 
the  performance  of  the  rite  of  circumcision,  for  which  their 
frequent  encampments  and  long  delays  in  various  localities 
offered  every  facility.  The  fact  seems  to  be  that  the  sin  at 
Kadesh-Barnea  (Numb.  xiv.  29),  where  the  people  had  stub- 
bornly refused  to  obey  the  Lord's  leading,  had  laid  them,  as  it 
were,  under  an  interdict,  and  placed  them  out  of  communion 
with  God.  The  covenant  was  for  the  time  abrogated,  and 
therefore  its  initiatory  rite  and  the  great  festival  which  signifi- 
cantly distinguished  the  peopie  of  God  were  omitted.     Now 


32  JOSHUA. 

that  they  had  taken  possession  of  their  inheritance  they  must 
place  themselves  in  the  position  of  the  covenant  people, 
pledged  to  serve  with  all  their  hearts  the  Lord  who  had 
promised  to  be  their  God  and  support  and  guide.  God  had 
performed  His  part  of  the  covenant  by  accomplishing  the 
promise  which  He  had  made  to  Abraham  ;  it  behoved  them 
to  do  their  part  of  which  circumcision  was  the  appointed 
pledge.  It  was  not  likely  that  Joshua  would  neglect  this 
great  duty,  though  he  had  every  reason  to  avoid  delay.  As 
a  skilful  strategist  he  well  knew  the  importance  of  striking  the 
first  blow,  and  that  before  the  enemy  recovered  from  panic  and 
had  time  to  combine  in^defence  of  their  country.  But  military 
expediency  must  give  way  to  religion.  Convinced  that  he  was 
imperatively  called  upon  to  re-establish  the  suspended  relation 
between  God  and  His  people,  he  saw  no  danger  in  carrying  out 
the  obligation  ;  He  whose  servant  he  was,  whose  command  he 
was  executing,  would  secure  their  safety  while  accomplishing 
His  requirements.  They  need  have  no  fear  who  are  faithfully 
treading  the  prescribed  path.  Had  not  God  engaged  to  guard 
their  homes  from  every  enemy  when  they  appeared  before  Him 
at  the  great  festivals,'  and  was  not  this  sufficient  encouragement 
to  cast  away  all  apprehension  in  attending  to  the  immediate 
duty  before  them  1  Thus  Joshua  reasoned,  and  proceeded  at 
once  to  action. 

It  has  been  calculated  that  some  700,000  males  required  to 
be  circumcised,  while  there  were  at  least  300,000  fathers  of 
families  or  other  fit  persons  who  might  perform  the  ceremony. 
The  former  consisted  of  the  generation  that  had  grown  up 
during  the  wanderings  in  the  wilderness,  the  latter  of  those 
who  had  been  circumcised  in  Egypt,  and  were  under  twenty 
years  of  age  at  the  time  of  the  great  rebellion.  There  was  no 
backwardness  in  the  people  when  this  duty  was  brought  to 
their  notice.  They  had  perfect  confidence  in  their  leader  ;  ttf' 
late  events  that  had  taken  place,  especially  the  wonderful 
passage  of  the  Jordan,  had  shown  that  God  was  with  them, 
and  was  guiding  their  movements  ;  there  was  no  time  for 
delay  ;  within  three  days  the  Passover  must  be  celebrated,  and 
all  must  be  prepared  to  take  part  in  the  great  festival.  So, 
with  a  faith  which  is  very  remarkable  when  we  remember  that 
for  some  days  after  the  operation  they  would  be  incapacitated 
*  See  Exod.  xxxiv,  24.  .  Conip.  ib.  xxiii.  27. 


JORDAN  CROSSED.  33 

for  war,  they  all  agreed  to  submit  to  the  painful  rite.  As  this 
was  a  very  special  and  important  occasion,  special  instruments 
were  used.  Certain  sharp  knives  made  of  flint  were  employed, 
which  being  thus,  as  it  were,  consecrated  to  a  religious  purpose 
were  never  degraded  to  any  other  office,  but,  as  Jewish  tradition 
states,'  were  carefully  laid  aside  by  Joshua,  and  after  his  death 
were  deposited  in  his  grave  at  Timnath-Serah.  Thus  by  the 
reception  of  circumcision  "  the  reproach  of  Egypt  "  was  rolled 
away,  and  a  new  interpretation  was  given  to  the  name  of  the 
locality  where  the  camp  was  pitched.  Gilgal  no  longer  meant 
"a  circle,"  recalling  the  idolatrous  rites  of  heathen  superstition, 
but,  under  Hebrew  manipulation,  signified  "  rolling,"  and 
henceforward  was  a  standing  memorial  that  all  reproach  con- 
nected with  Egypt  was  removed.  What  is  meant  by  this 
expression  is  not  quite  clear.  If  it  signifies  "  the  reproach 
which  comes  from  the  Egyptians,"  it  would  refer  to  taunts  cast 
upon  them  by  their  old  enemies,  deriding  their  claims  to  super- 
natural guidance  and  their  boast  of  occupying  the  Promised 
Land.  But  the  Egyptians  had  good  reason  to  recognize  the 
power  and  activity  of  the  God  of  Israel,  and  it  is  not  certain 
that  they  had  scoffed  at  the  pretensions  of  the  Israelites,  or  that 
the  latter  ever  heard  of  these  insulting  remarks,  if  they  were 
uttered.  More  probably,  the  reproach  is  that  which  attached 
to  them  as  having  been  a  nation  of  slaves  in  a  house  of  bondage. 
Others  think  that  the  reproach  applies  to  their  want  of  circum- 
cision, which,  in  the  eyes  of  Egyptians  who  generally  practised 
it,  was  a  great  disgrace.  This,  of  course,  suggests  that  while 
resident  in  Egypt  the  Israelites  more  or  less  neglected  the  rite 
— a  statement  incapable  of  proof,  and  indeed  repugnant  to  the 
words  in  Joshua  v.  5  :  "  Now  all  the  people  that  came  out  of 
Egypt  were  circumcised."  Josephus-  explains  Gilgal  as  mean- 
ing "freedom,"  connoting  release  from  the  servitude  in  Egypt 
and  from  their  long  sufferings  in  the  wilderness.  They  entered 
now  upon  a  new  life,  as  freemen  in  their  own  destined  inheri- 
tance, once  more  partakers  of  the  covenant,  the  household  of 
God.  As  the  pious  Israelite  was  ordered  to  instruct  his 
children  concerning  the  memorials  erected  on  the  opposite 
banks  of  Jordan,  so  he  would  possess  in  the  very  name  Gilgal 


«  See  Sept.,  Josh.  xxi.  42,  and  xxiv.  30  (31). 
■  "Ant."  V.  I.  n. 


34  JOSHUA. 

a  token  of  the  renewal  of  the  pledge  between  the  people  and 
God,  to  which  they  might  always  look  with  a  confidence  that 
He  who  had  begun  the  good  work  would  carry  it  on  to  the 
appointed  end.  Here  was  a  lesson  written  in  plain  characters, 
and  the  lesson  was  this  :  that  duty  was  the  only  consideration, 
that  it  was  superior  to  all  worldly  wisdom,  and  was  not  to  be 
controlled  by  any  fear  of  possible  consequences,  and  that 
obedience  to  the  Lord's  voice  secured  His  protection.  Such 
thoughts  must  have  animated  the  minds  of  the  Israelites  of 
that  day  as  they  submitted  to  the  sacramental  ceremony.  We, 
under  the  brighter  light  of  the  Gospel,  see  a  further  and  a  deeper 
significance  in  the  transaction.  It  implied  mortification  and 
purity,  that  no  one  was  fit  to  engage  in  the  sacred  war  who  was 
not  wishing  and  willing  to  conquer  the  lusts  of  the  flesh  and 
live  a  life  of  hardness,  and  that  the  Lord's  soldier  must  through 
much  tribulation  enter  the  kingdom  of  God. 

Now  being  consecrated  anew,  being  once  more  the  Lord's 
people,  the  Israelites  celebrated  the  Passover  on  the  appointed 
day,  the  fourteenth  of  the  month  Nisan,  the  fortieth  anniver- 
sary of  that  first  solemnity  when  they  ate  it  in  haste,  being 
thrust  out  of  the  land  of  Egypt.  Only  once  again  had  the 
festival  been  held  till  this  moment.  It  had  been  observed 
during  the  residence  at  Sinai,  but  after  the  mutiny  at  Kadesh- 
Barnea  the  people  were  not  worthy  of  it,  and  its  performance 
was  not  enforced.  To  a  large  majority  of  the  present  Israelites 
the  feast  and  its  accompanying  ceremonies  were  entirely  novel  ; 
they  entered  upon  them  with  a  strange  and  awestruck  joy  ;  the 
impression  thus  made  was  not  lightly  effaced.  All  was  done 
decently  and  in  order.  The  lamb  was  eaten  on  the  fourteenth  ; 
on  the  next  day  the  first-fruits  were  presented,  and  on  the  six- 
teenth the  people  partook  of  the  produce  of  the  land,  consisting 
in  part  of  the  new  corn  left  by  the  inhabitants  when  they  fled 
before  the  invaders,  or  brought  by  them  on  sale  to  the  camp. 
And  now  the  manna  ceased  to  fall ;  the  miraculous  supply 
which  for  nearly  forty  years  had  fed  this  immense  multitude 
failed,  and  was  found  no  more.  They  had  entered  on  a  region- 
of  plenty,  rich  in  grass  and  flowers,  a  land  flowing  with  milk 
and  honey  ;  henceforward  their  wants  would  be  satisfied  from 
the  natural  sources  around  them.  No  longer  did  they  eat 
•'bread  of  the  mighty  "  ;  ^  but  that  all  generations  might  know 
»  Psa.  Ixxviii.  25.      "Angels'  food,"  A.V. 


JORDAN  CROSSED.  35 

how  their  fathers  were  supported  during  their  weary  pilgrimage, 
an  omer  of  manna  was  placed  in  the  ark,  where  it  remained 
uncorrupted  till  the  destruction  of  the  temple  and  the  conse- 
quent dispersion  of  its  contents. 


CHAPTER    III. 

JERICHO    CAPTURED. 

The  capture  of  Jericho  necessary— Joshua  encouraged  by  a  revelation — 
Scriptural  Theophanies  —  Investment  of  Jericho  by  a  religious 
ceremony  —  The  number  seven  —  Miraculous  fall  of  the  city  ;  its 
destruction — The  ban — The  curse  on  Jericho — Fate  and  character  of 
Rahab. 

The  claims  of  religion  having  been  duly  observed,  and  the 
coming  war  having  been  thus  consecrated  and  made  a  holy 
war,  it  was  expedient  that  an  advance  should  be  made  imme- 
diately, ere  the  enemy  had  recovered  from  the  panic  wherewith 
the  recent  events  had  affected  them.  The  first  duty  that  lay 
before  the  Israelites  was  evidently  the  capture  and  destruction 
of  Jericho.  It  stood  directly  in  their  path  ;  it  was  the  key  to 
the  passes  that  led  to  the  interior  ;  it  contained  a  strong 
mihtary  population,  which  could  not  be  safely  left  in  their 
rear,  or  in  proximity  to  the  camp  at  Gilgal,  where  was  de- 
posited all  that  was  most  precious  to  them,  their  wives  and 
children,  their  wealth,  their  flocks  and  herds,  and  whence 
alone  they  could  draw  reserves  to  supply  any  losses  that 
they  might  sustain  in  their  dangerous  expeditions.  For  these 
reasons  Jericho  must  be  conquered.  But  how  were  they  to 
accomplish  this  enterprise  ?  It  was  a  well-fortified  city,  with 
strong  walls  and  massive  gates  ;  the  Israelites  were  wholly 
inexperienced  in  sieges  ;  they  had  no  engines,  they  possessed 
no  skill  in  such  military  engagements  ;  a  long  blockade  would 
have  laid  them  open  to  attack  from  surrounding  tribes.  It  was 
evident  that  the  place  must  be  taken  at  once,  or  their  own 
safety  would  be  most  seriously  endangered,  and  the  fruits  of 
their  sudden  and  unexpected  inroad  be  irrevocably  lost. 


JERICHO  CAPTURED.  37 

Perplexed  by  such  thoughts,  but  by  no  means  desponding  (for 
his  confidence  in  Jehovah  never  wavered  for  a  moment),  Joshua, 
when  the  Paschal  solemnities  were  completed,  made  his  way 
towards  Jericho,  and,  sheltered  by  the  groves  of  palm-trees 
which  covered  the  ground  around  the  city,  proceeded  to 
reconnoitre  the  place  from  a  nearer  position  than  any  that  he 
had  hitherto  occupied.  To  a  modern  soldier  the  fortress  would 
have  presented  no  very  formidable  barrier.  It  stood  upon  a 
gentle  eminence,  with  no  difficult  ground  immediately  in  its 
vicinity ;  the  walls  were  lofty  indeed,  but  not  calculated  to  with- 
stand battering  operations,  and  there  was  no  moat  or  glacis  to 
delay  an  attacking  party.  It  seemed  not  unlikely  that  a  deter- 
mined body  of  troops,  provided  with  shields  and  scaling  ladders, 
might  effect  a  lodgment  by  means  of  a  sudden  assault,  even 
though  they  had  no  means  of  breaching  the  walls.  As  Joshua, 
gazing  earnestly  on  the  scene  before  him,  pondered  on  these 
things,  his  doubts  were  resolved  in  a  wonderful  manner.  The 
details  were  taken  out  of  his  hands  ;  the  quarrel  was  the 
Lord's,  and  He  was  the  real  Leader  of  the  enterprise.  So  he 
was  suddenly  confronted  by  the  appearance  of  a  warrior  with 
his  sword  drawn  in  his  hand  standing  between  him  and  the 
city.  Undismayed  by  the  sight,  Joshua  boldly  goes  to  meet 
him,  and,  like  a  watchful  sentinel,  asks,  "  Art  thou  for  us,  or 
our  adversaries  ?"  And  the  man  answers,  "  Nay,  I  am  neither 
one  of  thine  enemies,  nor  one  of  thine  own  soldiers  ;  but  as 
captain  of  the  host  of  the  Lord  am  I  now  come."  Joshua, 
immediately  recognizing  the  supernatural  nature  of  the  appari- 
tion, and  prepared  to  expect  miraculous  interposition,  fell  on 
his  face  to  the  earth  and  worshipped,  asking  humbly,  "What 
saith  my  Lord  unto  His  servant?"  and  was  told,  as  Moses 
under  similar  circumstances,  to  loose  his  shoes  from  off  his  feet, 
for  the  place  whereon  he  stood  was  hallowed  by  the  Divine 
Presence.  Whoandwhatwasthis  mysterious  Personage?  Various 
have  been  the  answers  to  these  questions.  They  who  reject 
supernaturalism  affirm  that  the  vision  was  subjective,  presented 
to  Joshua's  mental  perception,  and  consequent  on  the  exalted 
state  of  his  feelings  and  his  conviction  of  being  under  the 
special  guidance  of  heaven.  The  wording  of  the  account  does 
not  confirm  this  view.  Joshua  advances  to  meet  "the  man,'* 
addresses,  worships  him,  obeys  his  injunction.  Evidently  in 
the  opinion   oi  the  narrator  the   vision   is  objective,   a  real 


38  JOSHUA. 

appearance  of  a  mysterious  personage-  The  Jews  have  thought 
that  it  was  the  archangel  Michael,  "  the  Prince  "  of  the  people 
of  Israel,  as  he  is  called  in  Daniel  (chap,  x.),  or  Gabriel,  the 
guardian  angel  of  the  Jews.  But  "  the  captain  of  the  hosts  of 
the  Lord"  is  something  higher  than  any  created  spirit.  The 
appellation  itself  signifies  not  the  leader  of  the  armies  of  Israel, 
which  are  not  called  the  hosts  of  the  Lord.  This  term  is 
applied  to  the  angels  and  to  the  powers  which  they  wield,  even 
as  God  is  called  the  Lord  of  hosts  ;  and  it  implies  here  that 
this  Prince,  with  all  His  forces,  spiritual  and  material,  will  be 
at  their  head  and  guide  them  to  victory.  That  this  was  a  true 
Theophany  we  may  well  believe  ;  though  whether  it  was  the 
appearance  of  the  Logos,  the  Son  of  God,  in  a  visible  shape,  or 
an  angelic  form  through  whom  Jehovah  deigned  to  manifest 
Himself,  it  is,  perhaps,  impossible  to  decide.  Doubtless  some 
of  the  revelations  mentioned  in  Scripture  are  mental  visions, 
impressions  made  upon  the  mind  by  the  will  of  God,  and 
having  no  objective  existence,  as  when  "the  word  of  the  Lord 
came  unto  Abram  in  a  vision,"  or  when  "God  did  tempt 
Abraham," '  or  in  the  case  of  the  visions  which  the  prophets  or 
St.  John  "  saw  "  ;  but  if  we  believe  in  the  historical  credibility 
of  Scripture,  we  must  acknowledge  that  the  beholder  on  other 
occasions  did  look  with  his  bodily  eyes  upon  some  supernatural 
visitant.  Of  course,  there  is  never  any  manifestation  of  the 
Deity  in  His  ineffable  essence  ;  no  man  hath  seen  God  at  any 
time ;  it  is  not  the  absolute  nature  of  God  that  is  revealed  ; 
but  in  condescension  to  man's  weakness  the  intervention  of 
some  angelic  form,  invested  with  Divine  attributes,  is  employed 
to  convey  the  message  or  disclose  the  will  of  God.  And  it  was 
the  general  belief  of  the  early  Church  that  all  these  Theo- 
phanies  were  appearances  of  the  second  Person  of  the  Holy 
Trinity,  who,  before  His  Incarnation,  assumed  the  angelic  form 
ill  order  to  communicate  with  His  servants.  The  Arian  con- 
troversy, which  endeavoured  to  prove  the  Person  of  the  revealed 
Son  to  be  lower  in  nature  than  the  unseen  Father,  tended  to 
modify  the  earlier  opinion  ;  and  Augustine,  strongly  affirming 
the  invisibihty  of  the  Son  as  God,  asserts  that  if  the  Son 
appeared  to  the  patriarchs,  He  used  the  intermediate  agency  of 
a  created  being,  who  represented  Him,  and  who,  being  put 
temporarily  in  His  place,  exercised  the  authority  and  received 
*  Gen.  XV.  i  ;  xxii.  i. 


JERICHO  CAPTURED.  39 

the  homage  which  especially  belonged  to  the  Divine  Person 
whose  apostle  he  was.  Whatever  judgment  we  form  concerning 
these  manifestations,  we  may  see  in  them  anticipations  of  the 
Incarnation,  "  lessons  addressed  to  the  eye  and  to  the  ear  of 
ancient  piety,"  preparing  the  way  for  the  reception  of  the  great 
event  to  which  type,  prophecy,  history,  looked  forward,  when 
**  the  Word  became  flesh  and  dwelt  among  us."  ^ 

No  doubt  had  Joshua  of  the  Divine  nature  of  the  being  who 
suddenly  appeared  to  him.  Divine  interposition  was  not  un- 
expected or  unprecedented.  The  occasion  seemed  to  demand 
such  an  occurrence.-  It  was  a  great  crisis  in  the  history  of 
Israel.  As  Moses  at  the  inauguration  of  his  mission  had 
received  the  Divine  revelation  in  the  burning  bush  of  Sinai,  so 
now  Joshua  at  the  commencement  of  his  campaign  was  to  be 
encouraged  and  directed  by  a  superhuman  intelligence.  If  he 
had  any  doubts  concerning  his  power  of  completing  the 
conquest  which  he  undertook,  this  Divine  visitant  assured  him 
of  victory.  He  was  taught  that  Israel  was  only  one  small 
portion  of  the  armies  that  were  leagued  with  him  ;  that  the 
hosts  of  the  Lord,  the  angels,  the  powers  of  nature,  the 
heavenly  influences,  were  ranged  on  his  side ;  and  that  all  these 
forces,  spiritual  and  material,  heavenly  and  earthly,  were  com- 
manded by  the  great  "Captain  ;  "  the  angel  of  the  Presence, 
who  hadguided  their  wanderings,  and  ordered  them  up  to  this 
present  moment.  No  longer  need  Joshua  disquiet  himseil 
about  the  means  of  capturing  the  city,  on  whose  strong  walls 
he  was  apprehensively  gazing  ;  no  armed  attack,  no  warlike 
expedients  would  be  required ;  by  a  method  utterly  unexampled 
the  place  should  be  taken  ;  religious  ceremony  should  act  the 
part  of  military  onslaught,  and  thus  all  surrounding  nations 
should  know  that  the  Lord  fought  for  Israel.  The  celestial 
warrior  then  proceeded  to  give  minute  directions,  unfolding  a 
marvellous  plan  which  in  a  week's  time,  without  danger  or 
bloodshed,  should  put  the  chosen  people  in  possession  of  this 
formidable  stronghold,  fenced  up  to  heaven,  supplied  with 
perennial  springs  of  water,  well  provisioned  for  a  siege,  and 
garrisoned  with  a  numerous,  though  now  dispirited,  body  of 
troops. 

On  the  first  day  of  the  week  Joshua  began  to  carry  out  the 
instructions  communicated  to  him — the  strangest  assault  on  a 
*  See  Liddon,  "  Bampt.  Lect."  ii.  pp.  83  ff.  (1867). 


40  JOSHUA. 

fortress  that  ever  was  made,  a  trial  of  faith  that  must  have  been 
of  the  severest  character.  All  the  fighting  m<tn,  indeed,  were 
marshalled  in  battle  array  ;  but  no  weapons  of  war  were  to  be 
used  ;  a  simple  procession  was  all  that  they  were  called  to 
make,  and  this  for  six  successive  days,  and  on  the  Sabbath  the 
victory  should  be  accomplished.  And  thus  it  came  to  pass. 
The  order  observed  was  this :  first  marched  the  warriors, 
armed  and  equipped,  in  their  usual  divisions,  under  their  tribal 
leaders  ;  these  were  followed  by  seven  priests,  each  bearing  one 
of  the  curved  jubilee  trumpets,  and  sounding  it  continually  ; 
then  came  the  central  object  of  the  procession,  the  sacred  ark, 
borne  on  the  shoulders  of  its  appointed  guardians;  and  the  long 
line  was  closed  by  the  rereward,  a  battalion  from  the  tribe  of 
Dan  to  which  that  post  appertained.  Solemnly  round  the 
walls  of  the  doomed  city  the  wonderful  procession  moved  ;  no 
voice  was  raised,  no  shout  of  war  ;  silently,  save  when  the 
regular  blasts  of  the  trumpets  roused  the  loud  echoes,  the 
train  passed  on  ;  in  silence  they  made  their  mysterious  circuit, 
and  having  completed  the  perambulation,  returned  to  the  camp 
at  Gilgal.  For  six  days  in  succession  this  was  done.  Mean- 
time the  Canaan ites  remained  quiet  within  their  walls.J^_thougn 
the^Iv'wasbeleaguered^^and  all  egress  had  been  prevented  by 
a  force"  pt  Jjesiegers^  It  would  have  been  only  natural  that, 
rfusTing  to  tlie  strength  of  their  fortifications  and  their  own 
skill  in  arms,  they  should  have  watched  with  derision  the 
purposeless  march  of  these  feeble  Jews,  or,  taking  an  oppor- 
tunity, should  have  made  a  sudden  sally,  and  inflicted  serious 
loss  upon  the  unattacking  enemy.  But  nothing  of  the  kind 
occurred.  They  were  thoroughly  cowed  and  terrified.  This 
awful  march  witti  no  attempfat  assault,  the  religious  character 
of  thg  Uiovement,  the  visible  token  of  the  presence  oi  the  great 
(loil  of  Israel,  impressedthem  with  a  terror  tne  very  vagueness 
of-^htch  increased  its  numbing  effect.  The  repi  tation  of 
MtJ^eslvas^vell  khovv'n  ;  his  claim  to  Divine  revelatic  n  and  to 
supernatural  direction  was  allowed  ;  and  now  to  his  successor 
the  same  powers  were  transmitted  ;  proof  had  aire  idy  been 
given  that  heaven  was  on  his  side,  and  some  fresh  intervention 
might  now  be  expected.  They  watched  and  waited,  not  know- 
ing how  or  when  or  where  the  blow  would  fall,  but  dimly 
conscious  that  a  great  calamity  was  close  at  hand,  which  they 
were  powerless  to  control  or  avert.      And  by  this  six    days' 


JERICHO  CAPTURED.  41 

march  the  Israelites  were  taught  a  lesson  ;  they  learned  that 
the  Lord  fought  their  battles,  that  their  strength  was  to  sit  still, 
that  their  part  was  patience  and  faith,  even  as  the  Psalmist 
exactly  expresses  it : 


"They  gat  not  the  land  in  possession  by  their  own  sword, 
Neither  did  their  own  arm  save  them  : 

But  Thy  right  hand,  and  Thine  arm,  and  the  hght  of  Thy  countenance, 
Because  Thou  hadst  a  favour  unto  them.  .  .  • 
For  I  will  not  trust  in  my  bow, 
Neither  shall  my  sword  save  me, 
But  Thou  hast  saved  us  from  our  adversaries, 
And  hast  put  them  to  shame  that  hate  us. 
In  God  have  we  made  our  boast  all  the  day  long, 
And  we  will  give  thanks  unto  Thy  name  for  ever  "  (Psa.  xHv.). 


On  the  seventh  day  the  proceedings  were  varied.  Insten^  of 
marching  round  the  city  once  only,  on  this  day  they  compassed 
it  seven  times  ;  and  as  each  circuit  must  have  taken  an  hour 
and  a  half,  they  began  the  perambulation  at  the  eaflTest  da\vn7 
so  as  to  complete  the  proceeding  before  the  evening  fell.'^  This, 
indeedpwas'Tio  infringement  of  t he- -Sat^bath ,  for"  it  was  a 
religfoiis  work,  performed  in  obedience  to  Divine  command, 
and"THefefbre  of  the  nature  of  worship.  We  may  remark,  in 
passTng7TheTecurrence  of  the  number  seven  in  this  transaction, 
seven  priests,  seven  trumpets,  seven  days.  The  number  seven 
symbolizes  perfection  and  rest.  It  may  be  regarded  in  two 
relations  as  six  plus  one,  or  as  four  plus  three,  and  on  these  two 
relations  its  significance  depends.  In  the  former  case  its 
symbolism  is  presented  inthe  account  of  the  work  of  creation  : 
"  iff  SIX  days'  the  Lord  macIe"Tre^reir^m d-^e.irrh^'and'on  th e 
sevenT!r~day~ne~ rested ."  So  the  worEs  of  creation,  to  find 
their  rest  and  sanctification,  must  be  united  to  Oiie^  that  is,  Go  1. 
*'  The  works  of  the  world,"  it  has  been  said,  "  in  themselves,  as 
external  to  Go^have  no  sanctification  "orTesFiintil  they  return 
to  God."  In  the  other  relation,  seeing  that  four  is  the  signature 
of  the  world,  and  three  of  the  Holy  Trinity,  four  united  to  three 
represents  the  world  united  to  God,  the  creation  reconciled 
with  its  Creator,  "  thus  making  up  the  holy  seven,  which  is  of 
forgiveness,  of  covenant  and  reconciliation  with  God,  and  of 
rest  in  Him,"  wliich,  as  the  sevf  nth  day  has  no  evening,  knows 


4Q  JOSHUA. 

no  end.*  We  may  regard  the  number  in  the  present  transaction 
as  denoting  completeness  and  consecration  ;  the  work  was  fully 
accomplished,  and  it  was  the  Lord's  work. 

The  seven  circuits  with  the  necessary  pauses,  even  if  we  sup- 
pose that  they  were  performed  by  relays  of  priests  and  soldiers, 
must  have  taken  nearly  twelve  hours  to  accomplish  ;  so  that  the 
sun  v.'as  sinking  towards  the  Judaean  hills  as  the  last  perambula- 
tion was  made.  And  then  the  long  silence  was  suddenly  broken ; 
at  Joshua's  command  a  mighty  shout  was  raised,  as  the  pealing 
trumpets  blared  ;  and  lo  !  the  strong  walls  of  the  city  crumbled 
away  and  fell  with  a  terrible  crash  ;  the  bulwarks  in  which  the 
evil  inhabitants  had  trusted  collapsed,  and  the  Israelites 
advanced  over  the  ruins,  "every  man  straight  before  him  "  ;  and 
though  the  Canaanites  made  s^^me  show  of  resistance,  they  were 
vastly  outnumbered,  and,  panic-stricken,  were  quickly  over- 
powered, and  when  the  Sabbath  was  ended  and  the  evening 
had  come,  the  whole  city  was  in  the  hands  of  the  invaders. 

If  we  take  the  history  simply  as  it  has  reached  us,  we  must 
consider  the  capture  wholly  miraculous.  This  is  no  hyper- 
bolical  expressiqn^of  the  fact  that  before  Jehova^^s^TTand  His 
people^r~courage  the  strongest  fortifications  niust_.collapse." 
TliefeTslio  questlmroTliiTdemiinTng^the'walls^o  sudden  and 
irresistible  assault  lllie^arrator  knows  nothing  of  such  mea- 
sures. In  his  view,  and  in  that  of  the  writer  of  the  Epistle  to 
the  Hebrews,  the  fall  of  Jericho  was  a  signal  triumph  of  f^ith. 
It  was  plainly  not  by  their  own  power,  or  skill,  or  courage,  that 
the~^3raelites~elFiec^ted  ~TRe^  coiiquest  ;  they  could  not  for  a 
moment  assert  that  it  succirmbed^lbntTTeTf  fuiToils^^attack.  God 
gave  it  into  their  hands  :  it  was  His  marvellous  work.  There 
was  fighting  enough  to  come  hereafter  before  they  were  settled 
in  their  land  ;  but  their  entrance  into  it  was  wholly  God's  doing, 
their  part  being  quiet  trust  and  perfect  obedience  ;  in  this  lay 
their  victory.  Whether  any  or  what  natural  agencies  were 
employed  in  the  demolition  of  the  walls  we  know  not.  The 
historian,  probably  an  eye-witness  of  the  occurrence,  describes 
what  he  saw,  and  gives  no  particulars  or  explanation  of  the 
phenomenon.  An  earthquake,  which  caused  wide  and  extensive 
breaches  in  the  ramparts,  would  answer  all  the  requirements  of 

'  From  a  paper  on  "The  Use  of  Numbers  in  Holy  Scripture,"  contri- 
buted by  me  to  a  long-forgotten  magazine. 

=  Evvald,  "  History  of  Israel,"  ii.  248,  Eng.  Trans. 


JERICHO  CAPTURED.  43 

the  narrative  ;  and  that  such  disturbances  were  i.  Dt  uncommon 
in  the  district  we  have  geological  and  historical  evidence  to 
prove.  Such  an  event  to  the  unsophisticated  and  unphilosophical 
minds  of  the  beholders  would  seem  a  special  intervention  of  the 
Lord  who  fought  for  them  ;  the  secondary  cause  of  the  destruc- 
tion was  unknown  to  them,  and  their  simple  faith  was  satisfied 
by  seeing  a  token  of  the  power  of  God,  and  looked  no  further 
into  the  matter.  But  we  recognize  the  Divine  Providence  which 
controlled  the  forces  of  nature  so  that  the  convulsion  happened 
at  the  appointed  moment  ;  we  recognize  the  omniscience  which 
directed  the  movements  of  Joshua,  and  placed  him  and  his 
troops  on  the  fated  day  in  the  ordered  position.  The  miracle 
loses  nothing  of  its  importance  because  we  conceive  of  God  as 
using  the  natural  powers  which  He  Himself  created,  rather  than 
working  new  wonders.* 

Thus  Jericho  was  captured  and  burnt,  and  its  utter  destruc- 
tion was  accomplished.  It  had  been  placed  under  the  ban, 
devoted  to  annihilation,  and  was  thus  removed  beyond  the  pale 
of  mercy,  so  that  we  read,  the  Israehtes  "utterly  destroyed  all 
that  was  in  the  city,  both  man  and  woman,  young  and  old,  and 
ox,  and  sheep,  and  ass,  with  the  edge  of  the  sword,"  saving  only 
the  indestructible  things,  silver  and  gold,  and  vessels  of  brass 
and  iron,  which  were  brought  into  the  treasury  of  the  Lord. 
This  terrible  form  of  excommunication  was  not  often  inflicted. 
The  word  which  is  here  translated  in  the  Authorized  Version 
"accursed"  would  be  better  rendered  "devoted,"  as  in  Lev. 
xxvii.  28.  It  implies  something  cut  off  from  common  uses  and 
given  up  to  Jehovah  without  the  possibility  of  redemption.  This 
dedication  might  be  either  for  preservation  or  destruction  ;  if 
living  the  devoted  thing  was  to  be  slain ;  otherwise  it  was  appro- 
priated to  the  sanctuary.  This  distinction  was  observed  in  the 
case  of  Jericho  :  men  and  animals  were  destroyed,  metallic 
articles  were  reserved  for  sacred  use.  When  other  Canaanite 
cities  were  taken,  property  was  exempted  from  the  ban  ;  cattle 
were  preserved  when  the  inhabitants  were  put  to  the  sword  ;  ^  but 
Jericho,  as  the  firstfruits  of  the  conquest  of  the  land,  was  wholly 
devoted  to  Jehovah,  and  all  that  was  therein  was  His  peculiar 
possession.  This  being  the  case,  no  one  could  rightly  appro- 
priate to  his  own  use  anything  whatever  ;  though  the  city  was 

^  Tuck,  "  Handbook  of  Biblical  Difficulties,"  500  ff. 

*  See  Deut.  ii.  34,  35  ;  iii.  6,  7  ;  Josh.  viii.  26,  27  ;  x.  28. 


44  JOSHUA. 

sacked  and  the  inhabitants  were  massacred,  no  soldier  might  de- 
rive the  least  benefit  from  the  rich  phmder  ;  it  was  all  the  Lord's  ; 
to  take  any  portion  of  it  was  sacrilege.  This  was  not  only  a 
religious,  but  a  prudential  measure.  In  the  inhabitants  of  the 
country  it  struck  a  wholesome  dread  which  tended  to  facilitate 
the  invader's  operations  ;  it  tested  the  obedience  of  the  Israelites 
thus  debarred  from  availing  themselves  of  the  spoils  of  a  rich 
city  ;  it  also  saved  them  from  the  temptations  of  luxury  and 
inaction,  which  would  have  been  fatal  to  the  execution  of  the 
severe  task  that  lay  before  them.  Jericho,  plundered  and  not 
destroyed,  might  have  proved  a  Capua  to  the  occupying  forces. 
The  ban  had  already  been  enforced  in  the  case  of  the  Canaanite 
cities  of  King  Arad,  when  under  Moses  the  people  utterly 
destroyed  these  places  with  their  inhabitants,  and  called  them 
Hormah,  z>.,  "  Ban,"  or  "  Devoted  to  God."  *  But  in  his  zeal 
for  purity  and  vital  religion  Joshua  was  not  satisfied  with  the 
demolition  of  the  present  city  and  the  death  of  its  inhabitants  ; 
he  bound  his  countrymen  by  a  solemn  oath  never  to  rebuild  it, 
but  in  accordance  with  the  law  of  the  ban,  to  let  it  be  a  heap  for 
ever.^  And  to  the  end  that  the  destiny  of  this  evil  place  might 
be  better  remembered  and  handed  on  from  generation  to  genera- 
tion, he  put  the  imprecation  in  a  rhythmical  form  :  "  Cursed  be 
the  man  before  the  Lord  that  riseth  up  and  buildeth  this  city 
Jericho  ;  with  the  loss  of  his  firstborn  shall  he  lay  the  foundation 
thereof,  and  with  the  loss  of  his  youngest  son  shall  he  set  up  the 
gates  of  it  ; "  i.e.^  the  rebuilder  shall  lose  his  eldest  son  when 
he  began  the  work,  and  his  youngest  should  die  on  its  com- 
pletion ;  it  may  be  that  the  final  restoration  should  leave  the 
builder  childless,  his  sons  from  the  eldest  to  the  youngest  being 
cut  off  during  the  progress  of  the  work.  This  curse  was  no 
mere  insensate  expression  of  human  vengeance  ;  it  contained  a 
prophetic  element,  which  gave  it  a  distinctive  character,  and 
elevated  it  above  all  common  vindictiveness.  Here  was  a 
standing  sermon,  an  acted  parable,  like  the  withered  fig-tree  in 
Gospel  history,  teaching  a  necessary  and  awful  lesson.  Jericho 
was  the  symbol  of  all  that  was  degrading  and  foul  ;  its  treat- 
ment was  God's  mark  on  the  demoralizing  idolatry  which  had 
there  its  stronghold  ;  it  became  in  the  eyes  of  future  generations 
a  representative  of  the  judgment  that  awaits  the  abominable 
vices  to  which  it  was  given  over.  Nor  was  it  till  the  reign  of 
»  Numb.  xxi.  i  ff.  =  Deut.  xiii.  i6. 


JERICHO  CAPTURED. 

the  idolatrous  king  Ahab  that  any  one  was  found  hardy  enou' 
to  tempt  the  fate  invoked  on  the  man  who' should  rebuild  t\\ 
ruined  fortifications.  Though  an  open  town  soon  arose  in  the 
immediate  neighbourhood,  and  in  later  days  a  school  of  prophets 
was  established  there,  it  was  one  Hiel,  a  Bethelite,  who,  de- 
spising the  old  prophecy,  some  five  hundred  years  afterwards 
raised  again  the  interdicted  fortifications,  and  incurred  the 
penalty  of  his  reckless  profanity/  It  is  probable  that  the  curse 
of  Joshua  referred  rather  to  the  re-erection  of  the  lofty  walls 
which  made  the  city  so  formidable  a  stronghold,  than  to  the 
building  of  houses  on  the  site  ;  and  we  find  that  the  place  never 
ceased  to  be  occupied,  being  included  in  the  territory  of  Ben- 
jamin, the  natural  advantages  of  the  situation  outweighing  the 
offence  of  its  antecedents.  Of  the  chequered  history  of  Jericho 
we  cannot  now  speak,  but  we  may  quote  Dr.  Edersheim's 
description  of  the  locality,  as  it  showed  in  Herod's  time,  which 
Josephus  calls  a  little  Paradise,^  "  All  around  wave  groves  of 
feathery  palms,  rising  in  stately  beauty  ;  stretch  gardens  of 
roses,  and  especially  sweet-scented  balsam-plantations,  of  which 
the  perfume  is  carried  by  the  wind  almost  out  to  sea,  and  which 
may  have  given  to  the  city  its  name  (Jericho,  *  the  perfumed  '). 
It  is  the  Eden  of  Palestine,  the  very  fairyland  of  the  old  world. 
And  hov/  strangely  is  this  gem  set !  deep  down  in  that  hollowed 
valley,  through  which  tortuous  Jordan  winds,  to  lose  his  waters 
in  the  slimy  mass  of  the  Sea  of  Judgment.  The  river  and  the 
Dead  Sea  are  nearly  equidistant  from  the  town — about  six 
miles.  Far  across  the  river  rise  the  mountains  of  Moab,  on 
which  lies  the  purple  and  violet  covering.  Towards  Jerusalem 
and  northwards  stretch  those  bare  limestone  hills,  the  hiding- 
place  of  robbers  along  the  desolate  road  towards  the  city.  .  .  . 
Over  all  this  strangely  varied  scene  has  been  flung  the  many- 
coloured  mantle  of  a  perpetual  summer." 

The  treatment  accorded  to  Jericho  was  such  as  has  approved 
itself  to  conquerors  in  all  ages.  Either  to  make  a  notable 
example  which  might  have  a  deterrent  effect  upon  possible 
opponents,  or  to  inflict  a  lasting  punishment,  or  to  remove  from 
power  of  active  wrong  a  dangerous  enemy,  victorious  generals 

•»  I  Kings  xvi.  34. 

*  Joseph.,  "Bell.  Jud."  iv-  8.  3;  Edersheim^  "Life  and  Times  of 
Jesus,"  il  35a 


$ 


JOSHUA. 


h  we  not  uncommonly  doomed  a  city  and  its  inhabitants  to  entire 
a  struction,  and  uttered  an  anathema  on  any  one  who  should 
attempt  to  rebuild  it.  Thus  when  Carthage  fell  before  the  irre- 
sistible arms  of  Rome,  the  Senate  passed  a  decree  that  the  walls 
should  be  destroyed,  and  every  house  within  them  levelled  to 
the  ground,  and  the  ploughshare  passed  across  the  ruins  ;  and 
Scipio,  the  triumphant  commander,  imprecated  a  solemn  curse 
on  any  who  should  raise  a  town  on  the  same  site  ;  and  the 
failure  of  C.  Gracchus'  attempt  to  establish  a  colony  there  a  few- 
years  after  was  attributed  to  the  working  of  this  curse.  Thus 
in  mythic  lore  Agamemnon  was  said  to  have  laid  a  similar  inter- 
dict on  the  restoration  of  Troy,  and  Croesus  on  Sidene.'  And 
with  regard  to  the  devotion  of  the  contents  of  a  captured  city  ta 
the  Supreme  Power,  we  find  such  statutes  in  force  among  many 
nations.*  The  Gauls,  Cassar  says,^  devote  to  Mars  most  of 
what  they  take  in  war  ;  of  what  remains,  they  dispose  in  the 
following  way  :  if  they  are  animals,  they  sacrifice  them  ;  if  they 
are  other  things,  they  pile  them  into  a  heap  which  is  rehgiously 
preserved  from  molestation.  Rarely  indeed  does  it  happen  that 
any  one  presumes  to  appropriate  any  of  the  spoil  thus  devoted  ; 
he  who  infringes  the  rule  is  most  severely  punished,  tortured,  and 
put  to  death.  Tacitus  "^  notes  that  in  a  war  between  tlie  German 
tribes,  the  Hermunduri  and  Catti,  the  latter  were  almost  annihi- 
lated, as  their  enemies  had  devoted  them  to  Mars  and  Mercury,, 
z\e.,  to  their  gods  Tyr  and  Wodan,  a  measure  which  involved  the 
litter  destruction  of  men  and  horses  and  all  animate  things. 
So  according  to  the  precept  cf  the  Jewish  law  a  thing  devoted  to 
Jehovah  could  not  be  re-appropriated,  redeemed,  or  sold  ;  if  it 
was  living,  it  was  put  to  death  ;  if  it  was  land,  it  passed  into  the 
possession  of  the  priests  ;  if  it  was  anything  else,  it  belonged  to 
the  treasury  of  the  sanctuary.  In  the  treatment  of  the  con- 
quered Canaanites  generally  we  note  the  existence  of  the  fiery  zea! 
which  could  brook  no  antagonism  to  its  own  high  ideal,  which 
saw  in  its  religion  the  only  possible  intercourse  with  the  Deity, 
and  viewed  with  utter  loathing  and  attacked  with  constant 
vehemence  all  that  was  opposed  or  inimical  to  Divine  truths 
Conceiving  themselves  possessed  of  a  unique  vocation,  and  ia- 

«  Strabo,  lib.  xiii.^  "  De  Ilio,"  p.  6oi.    Aripian,  "  Punica,"  §  135  sg^ 

*  Lange  on  Josh.  vi.  p.  73,  Eng.  Trans> 

2  "  Bell,  Gall."  vi.  i^.  *  "  Aniial."  xiik  52- 


JERICHO  CAPTURED.  47 

Spired  by  the  highest  confidence,  the  Israelites  regarded  all 
opponents  of  their  claims  as  the  enemies  of  heaven  and  devoted 
to  extermination.  In  the  young  energy  of  their  new  institutions 
it  seemed  to  be  an  important  principle  to  eliminate  all  that  was 
foreign,  all  that  Avas  of  lower  stamp,  all  that  might  sully  the 
purity  of  the  holy  people.  That  this  involved  the  wholesale 
sacrifice  of  human  lives  and  the  destruction  of  valuable  property 
was  a  consequence  that  offended  no  scruples  ;  it  was  all  done  to 
the  honour  of  God  and  in  the  interests  of  true  religion. 

One  household  alone  in  the  universal  destruction  of  Jericho 
escaped  the  general  fate.  In  accordance  with  the  agree- 
ment previously  mnde,  which  Joshua  scrupulously  maintained, 
the  spies  were  ordered  to  identify  Rahab's  house,  and  to  save 
her  and  her  family  in  the  massacre.  The  house  was  at  once 
recognized  by  the  scarlet  line  which  hung  from  the  window,  and 
it  was  seen  that  the  portion  of  the  wall  adjoining  the  edifice  had 
not  fallen  with  the  rest.  The  spies  found  the  woman  and 
her  relations  and  family  collected  under  the  one  roof,  and 
awaiting  with  anxiety  the  result  of  the  capture  and  sack  of  the 
city,  though  Rahab  herself  had  full  confidence  in  the  cause  of 
the  Israelites  anH~~E!reTiohouT'6f  the  messengers,  even  as  it  is 
saidlrTtli'e  KpTstle  to  the  Hebrews  (xi.  31) :  "  By  faith  the  hajlot 
Rahab  perished  not^with  jhem  that  were  disobedient,  having 
received  the  spies  with  peace."  She  and  all  her  household 
were  safely  conveyed  from  the  ruin  and  slaughter,  and  brought 
on  the  road  to  the  Israelites'  camp  ;  but  they  were  not  yet 
allowed  to  enter  its  sacred  precincts  ;  they  were  still  heathens 
and  legally  unclean,  and  as  such  their  presence  could  not  be 
tolerated.  But,  whatever  may  have  been  the  views  of  the  rest 
of  the  family,  Rahab  herself  learned  to  believe  in  Jehovah,  and 
was  admitted  as  a  proselyte  into  the  holy  fold,  and  when  the 
Book  of  Joshua  was  written  she  was  highly  honoured  and 
"dwelling  in  Israel  unto  this  day."  Her  name,  indeed,  dis- 
appears from  the  Old  Testament,  but  it  comes  forward^giin 
in  tliegenealogy  of  our  .blessed  Lordas^givenby^t.  Matthew. 
Herein  we  read  that  Rahab,  or,  as  she  is  there  called,  Rachab, . 
became  the  wife  of  Salmon,  the  father  of  Boaz,  and  thus  an 
ancestress  of  Christ.  This  Salma  or  Salmon  was  the  son  of 
Nahshon,  mentioned  as  the  fourth  in  descent  from  Judah,  and 
the  chief  prince  of  the  tribe.  It  is  quite  poftible  that  he  was 
one  of  the  two  spies,  as  it  is  not  likely  that  any  but  men  of 


48  JOSHUA. 

eminence  would  have  been  sent  on  that  momentous  business, 
and  we  know  that  on  the  former  occasion  the  selected  emis- 
saries were  all  of  them  "heads  of  Israel."  Gratitude  for  his 
ingenious  rescue  from  a  situation  of  extreme  peril  may  have  led 
him  to  IciDk  with  favour  upon  his  rescuer  and  to  condone  past 
disgrace.  At  any  rate  Rahab's  subsequent  conduct  effaced  her 
evil  past,  and  she  shares  with  three  other  women  the  dignity  oi 
being  handed  down  in  the  genealogy  of  the  great  Son  of  David, 
who  "  came  not  to  call  the  righteous,  but  sinners  to  repentance." ' 
The  other  women  mentioned  are  Tamar  and  Bathsheba,  both 
scandalous  in  their  lives,  and  Ruth,  a  heathen  Moabitess  ;  and 
we  learn  to  see  in  them  instances  of  the  election  of  grace,  and 
the  renovation  that  comes  with  repentance  and  faith,  and  the 
call  of  the  Gentiles  to  be  united  with  the  people  of  God.  From 
an  inhabitant  of  this  iniquitous  city,  Jericho,  sprung  the  family 
of  David,  and  the  lineage  of  the  Messiah  who  was  to  carry 
salvation  to  the  ends  of  the  earth.  Let  us  linger  for  a  few 
minutes  on  the  character  of  Rahab.  We  must  not  look  with 
Christian  eyes  upon  her  evil  occupation.  The  tone  of  feeling 
in  her  own  country  was  infinitely  low,  and  would  see  nothing 
worthy  of  reprobation  in  her  mode  of  life.  That  she  was  living 
in  sin  or  incurring  heavy  guilt  never  crossed  her  mind  ;  nor 
was  it  till  she  was  brought  face  to  face  with  the  purity  of  the 
Mosaic  law  that  she  recognized  a  higher  standard  of  morals. 
We  see  in  her  a  woman  of  w^rm  natural  affection,  which  she 
showed^h^iUlusual  solicitude  for  the  safety  of  her  relations  ; 
one  of  ready  resources  and  much  astuteness,  exhibited  by  her 
reply  to  the  king's  officers  and  her  concealment  of  the  spies  ; 
and"one  possessed  of  a  tenderer  heart  and  more  humane 
feeTTngsjthan- ^vere  usually  found  in  an  age  and  a  land  where 
'manV  life  was  little  regarded,  and  pity  for  an  enemy  was 
unknown.  As  to  her  untruthfulness,  the  sacred  historian  does 
not  commend  it ;  he  simply  records  it,  pronouncing  no 
opinion  upon  its  morality.  Here  again  we  must  beware  how 
we  try  her  by  the  Christian  standard.  Truth  was  not  regarded 
as  a  duty  any  more  then  than  it  is  now  in  the  East  ;  lying  did 
not  offend  the  conscience  of  a  Canaanite  ;  he  had  no  idea  of 

*  The  arguments  for  the  statements  in  the  text  may  be  found  in 
Lord  A.  Hervey's  articles,  "Salmon"  and  "Rahab,"  in  the  "Diet,  of 
the  Bible,"  and  in  his  exhaustive  work  on  the  "Genealogies  of  our 
Lord." 


JERICHO  CAPTURED.  49 

the  obligation  of  a  strict  adherence  to  veracity,  and  would  hail 
with  approbation  a  deceit  or  evasion  which  solved  a  difficulty 
or  saved  himself  or  a  friend  from  danger.    The  falsehood  which 
a  Christian  could  utter  only  by  doing  violence  to  his  sense  of 
right  came  without  effort  from  the  lips  of  one  who  had  never 
learned  to  be  strictly  straightforward  and  veracious,  and  who 
could  deceive  with  the   utmost   coolness   and   self-possession. 
Rahab  too  is  accused  of  playing  a  treacherous  part  towards  her 
own   countrymen  in  saving  the  lives  of  her  national  enemies 
and  bargaining  with  them  for  the  safety  of  herself  and  her  family. 
But  we  must  remember  that  she  v/as  not  a  mere  unenlightened 
heathen.     What  was  her  language  to  the  spies?     "  I  know  that 
the  Lord  hath  given  you  the  land,  and  that  your  terror  is  fallen 
upon  us,  and  that  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  land  melt  away 
before  you.     For  we  have  heard  how  the  Lord  dried  up  the 
water  of  the  Red  Sea  before  you,  when  ye  came  out  of  Egypt, 
and  what  ye  did  unto  the  two  kings  of  the  Amorites,  that  were 
beyond  Jordan,  unto  Sihon   and  unto  Og,  whom   ye  utterly 
destroyed.     And  as  soon  as  we  had  heard  it  our  hearts  did 
melt,  neither  did  there  remain  any  more  spirit  in   any  man 
because  of  you  :  for  the  Lord  your  God,"  she  continues,  "He 
is  God  in  heaven  above  and  on  earth  beneath."     Thus  she  had 
learned  to  distrust  the  religion  of  her  countrymen,   and  was 
ready  to  receive  the  true  faith  when  presented  to  her  accept- 
ance.    She  saw  that  Canaan  would  fall  into  the  hands  of  the 
invaders  ;  that  these  were  directed  by  an  irresistible  power  ;  and 
if  self-interest  led  her  to  make  terms  with  Israelites,  she  argued 
that  the  death  of  two  men   would  not  deliver  Jericho   from 
destruction,  nor  the  immunity  of  herself  and  her  family  be  an 
act  of  treachery  to  her  countrymen,  on  whose  fate  the  salvation 
of  her  household  could  have  no  effect  whatever.     But  at  the 
bottom  of  her  conduct  lay  a  principle  of  faith,  which  had  more 
influence  than  all  worldly  considerations.   Acting  up  to  what  she 
knew,  she  received  further  measures  of  grace,  so  that  she  was 
admitted  into  the  chosen  fold,  and  obtained  the  high  position 
of  becoming  "  a  mother  in  Israel." 


CHAPTER  IV. 

FIRST  CHECK— ITS   CAUSE  AND   REMOVAL. 

Ai — Israelites  defeated — Rending  of  clothes  in  token  of  grief— Joshua's 
complaint — The  sin  indicated  ;  fixed  on  Achan — The  punishment  of 
fhe  criminal  in  the  Valley  of  Achor — Successful  attack  on  Ai,  and 
destruction  of  the  city — Fate  of  Bethel. 

The  fall  of  Jericho  opened  the  way  to  the  interior  of  the 
country.  Behind  this  city  two  chief  passes  led  into  central  Pales- 
tine. The  most  practicable  and  direct  was  one  which  tended 
somewhat  to  the  north,  and  is  known  now  as  the  Wady  Kelt. 
This  gorge,  some  eight  miles  from  its  outlet  in  the  Jordan  Valley, 
meets  the  Wady  Harith,  a  deep  ravine,  which  also  rises  from  the 
Arabah,  north  of  Wady  Kelt.  Near  the  junction  of  these  wadies 
in  a  "wild  entanglement  of  hill  and  valley,"  and  a  little  to  the 
east  of  the  well-known  town  of  Bethel,  stood  the  city  of  Ai  or 
Hai.  The  identification  of  this  place  is  still  undetermined. 
The  name  means  "  heap  "  or  "ruins,"  and  is  supposed  to  refer 
to  the  fact  that  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  had  in  early  days 
built  a  city  there  before  the  site  was  occupied  by  the  later  Canaan- 
ites.  Captain  Conder  with  much  probability  suggests  the 
modern  village  of  Haiyan  as  the  representative  of  the  ancient 
Ai.  This  place  lies  two  miles  east  of  Bethel  on  the  side  of  the 
Wady  Suweinit,  which  is  the  north-west  continuation  of  the 
Wady  Kelt.  We  hear  of  the  Wady  Suweinit  in  the  history  of 
Jonathan,  when  he  and  his  armour-bearer  made  their  unex- 
pected and  successful  attack  on  the  Philistine  encampment. 
Though  Ai  was  not  a  place  of  any  very  great  size,  and,  as  its 
whole  inhabitants  were  twelve  thousand,  could  not  have  pos- 
sessed more  than  two  thousand  fighting  men,  its  position  was  so 
strong,  and  its  power  of  offence  so  evident,  that  Joshua  could 


FIRST  CHECK— ITS   CAUSE  AND   REMOVAL.  5 1 

not  safely  leave  it  in  his  rear,  and  its  capture  must  be  im- 
mediately effected.     Leaving  the  smoking  ruins  of  Jericho,  and 
marching  up  the  valley  which  offered  a  ready,  though  some- 
what difficult,  passage  into  the  interior,  he  halted  his  army  at 
some  distance  from  the  mouth  of   the  defile,   and  proceeded 
to   make    a  reconnoisance  of    this  almost  unknown    country. 
Though  under  Divine  direction,  he  was  not  relieved  from  the 
necessity  of  using  all  human  precautions,  and,  like   a  skilful 
general,  thought  himself  bound  to  examine  the  district  before 
committing  his  troops  to  its  intricacies.     Accordingly  he  sent 
forward  spies  to  note  the  nature  of  the  ground  and  the  strength 
of  the  enemy.     These  men  on  their  return  reported  that  they 
had  reconnoitred  the  city  of  Ai,  and  that  it  was  of  no  great  size, 
and  might  easily  be  smitten  by  a   small  force.     No   account 
seems  to  have  been  made  of  Bethel  in  its  immediate  neighbour- 
hood ;  it  was  probably  a  place  of  small  population,  and  less 
military    importance  ;    though,  doubtless,   the   leader's    heart 
thrilled  with  joy  and  reverence,  as  he  thought  of  the  associa- 
tions which  that  name  conveyed,  recalling  his  great  forefather 
Abraham,  and  the  patriarch  Jacob.     The  Israelites   had  not 
well  understood  the  lesson  which  the  fall  of  Jeripho  was  meant 
to  teach  ;  they  did  not  quite  appreciate  the  kind  of  warfare  in 
which  they  were  engaged ;  they  had  thought  the  seven  days' 
peregrination  a  useless  labour,  and  they  deprecate  any  more 
proceedings  of  a  hke  character.     "  Let  not  all  the  people  go 
up,"  they  say,  "  but  let  about  two  or  three  thousand  go  up  and 
smite  Ai ;  and  make  not  all  the  people  to  toil  thither,  for  they 
are  but  few."     Without  asking  counsel  of  the  Lord,  and  reason- 
ing only  on  military  grounds,  Joshua  fell  in  with  these  represen- 
tations, and  sent  a  force  of  three  thousand  men  against  the  city. 
Success  had  produced  extravagant  confidence  ;  the  protecting 
hand  of  God  seemed  to  be  secured  for  their  enterprise,  what- 
ever it  was,  and  they  had  no  fear  of  any  disaster.     But  a  stern 
lesson  was  in  store.     Boldly  the  appointed  contingent  marched 
to  the  attack,  thinking  to  carry  all  before  them.     But  as  they 
toiled,  up  the  steep  ascent  at  the  head  of  which  the  city  was 
placed,  the  garrison  of  Ai  suddenly  sallied  forth  and  assaulted 
the   Israelites  with  vigour.     Panic-stricken,    the  latter  turned 
and  fled  without  striking  a  blow  ;  hurrying  back  towards  the 
stone  quarries  which  marked  the  sides  of  the  hills,  they  were 
overtaken  by  the  enemy,  where   the   valley  leading   from  Ai 


52  JOSHUA. 

turns  to  the  East,  and  some  of  the  hindmost  were  cut  off, 
while  the  main  body  made  good  their  retreat  to  the  camp. 
Only  six-and-thirty  fell  in  the  contest,  but  such  a  defeat  was  an 
unexpected  and  crushing  blow.  "  The  hearts  of  the  people 
melted  and  became  as  water."  A  terrible  misgiving  seized 
them  that  the  favour  of  Jehovah  was  withdrawn  ;  they  felt  as 
the  Canaanites  had  felt  at  the  news  of  their  successes  ;  their 
late  overweening  confidence  was  broken  ;  downcast  and  dis- 
pirited they  knew  not  what  to  think,  whither  to  turn  ;  they 
were  thoroughly  demoralized.  Joshua,  as  a  gallant  soldier, 
was  grievously  affected  by  the  pusillanimous  behaviour  of  the 
troops  ;  but  like  the  rest  he  had  more  serious  cause  of  appre- 
hension than  any  mere  instance  of  cowardice  or  imprudence  in 
his  army.  He  saw  the  effects  of  this  disaster ;  he  saw  in  it 
also  a  token  of  Divine  displeasure,  and  with  a  tendency  to 
despondency  which  was  natural  to  a  temperament  rather 
morally  than  physically  courageous,  he  rent  his  clothes  in  utter 
grief  and  consternation.  This  rending  of  the  clothes  in  token 
of  mourning  is  continually  mentioned  in  Scripture  ;  it  is  not 
only  a  spontaneous  ebullition  of  grief,  but  is  sometimes  en- 
joined by  authority,  as  in  modern  days  particular  modes  of 
dress  are  prescribed  on  occasions  of  national  mourning.  Thus 
David  enjoined  his  people  to  exhibit  this  token  (  f  grief  at  the 
treacherous  murder  of  Abner.^  No  great  destruction  of  gar- 
ments was  occasioned  by  the  practice.  The  tear  did  not 
usually  extend  to  more  than  a  handbreadth  from  the  upper 
border  of  the  garment,  though  in  the  case  of  mourning  for 
parents  the  rent  was  somewhat  more  extensive.  There  were 
also  rules  as  to  the  interval  that  was  to  elapse  before  the 
aperture  was  sewn  up,  the  time  prescribed  varying  from  a  week 
to  thirty  days.  Such  outward  evidences  of  sorrow  were  not 
permitted  to  the  high  priest,  and  Joshua,  as  the  chief  official 
in  the  congregation,  would  not  have  resorted  to  this  symbolical 
action  without  the  gravest  reason.  And  he  showed  his  sense 
of  the  situation  by  another  typical  ceremony  ;  he,  with  the 
elders  of  Israel,  cast  himself  down  upon  the  ground  and  put 
dust  on  his  head,  and  lay  sorrowing  till  eventide.  Such  token 
of  humiliation  has  been  common  in  all  ages  and  countries. 
Thus  man,  defiling  the  noblest  member  of  his  body,  reminds 
himself  of  his  mortality,  returns,  as  it  were,  to  the  ground  from 
'  2  Sam.  iii.  31. 


FIRST  CHECK— ITS  CAUSE  AND   REMOVAL.  53 

whence  he  was  taken. ^  But  Joshua  knew  whither  to  betake 
himself  in  any  perplexity ;  prostrate  in  the  tabernacle,  where 
he  had  so  often  ministered  to  his  departed  Master,  he  poured 
forth  his  complaint  and  made  his  appeal  to  Jehovah.  "Alas  ! 
O  Lord  God,"  impatiently  he  cries,  "  wherefore  hast  Thou  at 
all  brought  this  people  over  Jordan,  to  deliver  us  into  the 
hands  of  the  Amorites,  to  cause  us  to  perish  ?  Would  that  we 
had  been  content  and  dwelt  beyond  Jordan  !  O  Lord,  what 
shall  I  say  to  encourage  the  people,  after  that  Israel  hath 
turned  their  backs  before  their  enemies  ?  For  the  Canaanites 
and  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  land  shall  hear  of  it,  and  shall 
compass  us  round,  and  cut  off  our  name  from  the  earth  ;  and 
what  will  Thou  do  for  Thy  great  name?"  It  was  a  real  and 
pressing  danger  that  Joshua  apprehended.  The  easy  defeat  of 
this  assault  would  revive  the  courage  of  the  Canaanites;  they 
would  see  that  the  invaders  were  not  in'/incible,  and  would 
combine  to  crush  them  at  the  outset  of  their  enterprise.  He 
uses  the  same  argument  that  he  had  heard  Moses  urge  under 
analogous  circumstances.  Often  had  that  great  leader  expos- 
tulated with  the  Lord  in  similar  terms.  "Wherefore  should  the 
Egyptians  speak,  saying.  For  evil  did  He  bring  them  forth  to 
slay  them  in  the  mountains,  and  to  consume  them  from  the 
face  of  the  earth  ?  .  .  .  The  nations  which  have  heard  the  fame 
of  Thee  will  speak,  saying,  Because  the  Lord  was  not  able  to 
bring  this  people  into  the  land  which  He  sware  unto  them, 
therefore  He  hath  slain  them  in  the  wilderness."^  Joshua  is 
jealous  for  the  honour  of  God,  as  well  as  torn  with  anxiety 
concerning  the  prospects  of  the  invasion.  Thus  he  wrestled 
in  prayer,  not  yet  understanding  the  cause  of  the  present 
calamity.  But  an  answer,  stern  and  sudden,  came  to  him  : 
"Get  thee  up,"  said  the  voice  of  the  Lord;  "wherefore  art  thou 
fallen  thus  upon  thy  face  ?  "  This  was  no  time  for  weak  lamen- 
tation ;  it  was  a  moment  for  prompt  action.  There  was  a 
reason  for  the  calamity  ;  and  this  reason,  God  showed,  was  a 
sin  committed  by  Israel  which  hid  God's  face  from  them  and 
removed  them  from  His  protection.  This  must  be  searched 
out  and  punished  ere  they  could  hope  to  be  received  into 
favour.     The  otience  was  a  grievous  one  :  the  ban  on  Jericho 

*  Comp.   I  Sam.  iv.  12;  2  Sam.  i.  2;   Job  ii.  12;   Lam.  ii.   10;  Horn. 
"  II."  xviii.  23  ff. 

=  Exod.  xxxii.  12  ;  Numb.  xiv.  13  ff.  ;  Deut.  ix.  28. 


54  JOSHUA. 

had  been  broken,  an  act  of  sacrilege  had  been  committed  with 
many  an  aggravation.  Israel  had  broken  the  solemn  vow,  had 
stolen  what  did  not  belong  to  them,  had  acted  deceitfully,  and 
had  actually  appropriated  to  their  own  use  that  which  was 
devoted  to  God.  Joshua  may  well  have  doubted  of  whom  this 
was  spoken  ;  but  he  knew  that  the  sin  even  of  one  individual 
in  such  a  matter  was  the  sin  of  all  till  'they  had  cleared  them- 
selves of  it  and  punished  the  offender.  The  nation  is  treated 
as  an  organic  whole  ;  the  defilement  of  one  member  rendered 
the  community  accursed,  and  till  the  pollution  was  removed, 
the  covenant  was  suspended  and  victory  was  not  to  be  expected. 
The  first  thing  to  do  under  these  circumstances  was  to  discover 
the  offender.  Whoever  he  might  be,  he  hoped  to  remain  un- 
detected ;  but  there  were  means  of  fixing  the  guilt  on  the 
delinquent  which  could  not  be  evaded. 

By  God's  command  the  people  were  to  prepare  for  the 
investigation  by  ceremonial  purification,  and  on  the  morrow 
to  present  themselves  before  the  Lord,  when  the  guilty  person 
would  be  pointed  out.  The  mode  of  detection  is  not  specified, 
but  it  may  have  been  by  means  of  the  lot,  which  was  regarded 
as  directed  in  its  result  by  God.  This  method  of  divination  was 
largely  used  throughout  antiquity  among  all  peoples  ;  and  in 
Scripture  we  find  it  employed  not  only,  as  here,  in  criminal 
investigations,  but  also  in  apportionments  of  land  and  spoil,  in 
selection  of  individuals  for  high  stations  or  for  dangerous  ex- 
ploits. It  may  have  been  that  the  inquiry  was  conducted  by 
the  high  priest  by  means  of  the  mysterious  Urim  and  Thum- 
mim.  The  priest  stood  at  the  door  of  the  tabernacle,  the 
people  passed  before  him  in  due  order,  and  the  selection  was 
made  by  the  voice  Divine.  As  the  genealogies  were  carefully 
kept,  and  every  division  and  subdivision  were  accurately  recog- 
nized, there  was  no  difficulty  in  making  the  necessary  examina- 
tion. It  was  perfectly  successful  in  the  present  case.  With 
absolute  impartiality  the  terrible  ordeal  was  executed,  and  the 
offender  was  unerringly  designated  by  the  Judge  of  all  the 
earth.  First  came  the  representatives  of  the  tribes,  and  Judah 
was  taken  ;  in  Judah  the  clan  of  the  Zera-hites  ;  in  this  clan 
the  house  of  Zabdi  was  selected,  and  in  this  house  the  special 
family  of  Carmi ;  and  on  the  members  of  this  family  presenting 
themselves  man  by  man,  the  guilt  was  fastened  upon  Achan,  one 
of  the  sons.     Thus  in  ever  narrowing  circles  the  offender  was 


FIRST  CHECK— ITS  CAUSE  AND  REMOVAL,  55 

gradually  marked  out,  and  in  the  presence  of  the  watching, 
"awestruck  multitude  the  sin  was  centred  on  the  individual. 
No  evasion  was  possible  ;  the  sinner  could  not  deny  his  guilt. 
When  Joshua  tenderly  yet  sternly  urged  him  to  full  confession, 
he  at  once  acknowledges  his  transgression.  "  My  son,"  says 
the  leader,  feeling  for  the  criminal,  though  he  knew  there  could 
be  no  alleviation  of  the  incurred  penalty — "  My  son,  give,  I  pray 
thee,  glory  to  the  Lord  the  God  of  Israel,  to  whom  the  secrets 
of  all  hearts  are  open,  and  make  confession  unto  Him  ;  and  tell 
me  now  what  thou  hast  done  ;  hide  it  not  from  me."  Now  at 
length,  when  escape  was  no  longer  feasible,  the  wretched  culprit 
owned  his  transgression  and  explained  the  temptation  to  which 
he  had  fallen  victim.  In  the  sack  of  Jericho  he  had  found  a 
goodly  Babylonish  mantle,  one  of  those  costly  clokes  or  state- 
robes  worked  artistically  with  figures  of  men  and  animals  and 
esteemed  as  an  article  of  the  utmost  value,  which  was  a  produce 
of  the  looms  of  the  land  of  Shinar,  and  imported  among  other 
precious  articles  by  the  merchants  who  traded  between  Syria 
and  the  East.  This  he  coveted  and  appropriated  unseen  by 
his  comrades.  Besides  this,  he  had  taken  two  hundred  shekels 
of  silver,  probably  coined  money,  and  a  wedge-shaped  ornament 
or  implement  of  gold,  weighing  some  twenty-five  ounces.  These 
he  had  hidden  away  in  a  hole  dug  in  the  ground  on  which  his 
tent  stood,  the  precious  metals  being  placed  at  the  bottom  and 
the  garment  at  the  top,  and  the  whole  covered  with  earth. 
Thus  carefully  Achan  describes  his  theft  and  the  pains  which 
he  had  taken  to  conceal  it.  Messengers  are  at  once  despatched 
to  the  tent ;  they  find  the  articles  in  the  position  indicated, 
and  bring  them  to  Joshua  and  the  chiefs,  who  solemnly  lay 
them  out  before  the  ark,  thus  acknowledging  the  trespass,  and 
restoring  the  devoted  things  to  the  Lord  from  whom  they  had 
been  sacrilegiously  purloined.  One  further  act  remained  to  be 
done  ere  atonement  was  complete.  The  offender  niust  be  put 
to  death  ;  and  not  only  he  himself  must  suffer  the  penalty  of 
his  crime,  but  all  that  belonged  to  him  ;  the  sentence  was  that 
his  sons  and  his  daughters,  his  oxen,  asses,  sheep,  his  tent  and 
all  his  possessions,  including  the  devoted  articles  for  which  he 
had  incurred  the  sin,  should  be  utterly  destroyed.  It  was  a 
terrible  sentence.  How  is  it  to  be  reconciled  with  the  well- 
known  dictum  :  "  The  fathers  shall  not  be  put  to  death  for  the 
children,  neither  shall  the  children  be  put  to  death  for  the 


$6  JOSHUA. 

fathers ;  every  man  shall  be  put  to  death  for  his  own  sin  ? "' 
On  the  other  hand,  Achan  had  wilfully  incurred  the  ban,  and 
ne  and  his  had  become  liable  to  the  penalty  imposed  on  com- 
munities thus  accursed  ;  he  had  made  his  tent,  as  it  were,  a 
part  of  Jericho,  and  his  family  as  the  inhabitants  of  that  devoted 
city,  and  he  must  be  treated  in  accordance  therewith.  Whether 
his  household  was  privy  or  not  to  his  deed  (and  it  is  difficult  to 
believe  that  he  could  have  concealed  it  from  those  with  whoms 
he  was  living),  they  were  involved  in  his  guilt ;  the  solidarity 
of  the  family  necessitated  this.  A  sin  has  far-reaching  con- 
sequences ;  the  sins  of  the  fathers  are  indeed  visited  upon  the 
children  ;  we  see  this  in  the  law  of  heredity  ;  we  see  the  same 
principle  energizing  in  the  constitution  of  societies,  states,  and 
nations ;  the  faults  of  leaders  affect  a  wide  circle  of  innocent 
sufferers.  Nothing  can  tend  better  to  bring  home  to  men's 
minds  the  heinousness  and  corrupting  nature  of  evil  than  the 
terrible  truth  that  the  punishment  is  not  confined  to  the  actual 
wrong-doer,  but  extends  in  a  widening  circle  to  victims  guiltless 
and  unknown,  Achan's  transgression  was  wilful  and  presump- 
tuous ;  he  had  robbed  God  ;  he  had  thought  to  remain  uncon- 
vcited  ;  in  the  face  of  the  recent  displays  of  God's  Almighty 
power,  in  spite  of  the  holy  covenant  just  renewed,  he  had, 
in  his  selfish  greed  ajid  secret  unbelief,  brought  the  guilt 
of  sacrilege  upon  the  whole  congregation,  and  imperilled 
the  general  safety.  A  stern  example  Avas  needed.  The 
conquest  of  Canaan  was  a  holy  war  ;  the  treatment  of  the 
inhabitants  and  their  property  was  regulated  by  Divine  com- 
mands ;  no  base  motives  must  mingle  with  the  execution 
of  the  ordered  veng^eance  ;  and  he  who  first  introduced  the 
elements  of  disobedience  and  self-interest  into  the  accom- 
plishment of  the  great  design  must  experience  a  signal  retribu- 
tion. The  awful  sentence  was  duly  carried  out.  Down  the 
Wady  Kelt  marched  a  sorrowful  procession  bearing  with  them 
Achan,  his  family,  and  his  possession,  even  ail  that  he  had> 
and  having  arrived  at  a  spot  where  the  execution  could  be 
most  effectually  witnessed  by  the  awestruck  congregation,  the 
representatives  of  Israel  stoned  the  victims  to  death,  as  those 
who  were  guilty  of  blasphemy,  idolatry,  or  sabbath-breaking 
were  put  to  death.  The  dead  bodies  were  consumed  with  fire, 
and  over  the  remains,  as  a  lasting  memorial  of  the  sin  and  hs 
*  Deut.  xxjv.  16. 


FIRST  CHECK— ITS  CAUSE  AND  REMOVAL.  57 

punishment,  a  great  heap  of  stones  was  raised,  and  the  pass 
henceforward  was  known  as  the  "  valley  of  Achan,"  the  "  valley 
of  him  that  troubleth  "  ;  even  as  Joshua  says,  dwelling  with 
sad  significancy  on  the  meaning  of  the  name,  "  Why  hast  thou 
troubled  us  ?  The  Lord  shall  trouble  thee  this  day."  Some 
critics,  looking  exclusively  to  the  merciful  provisions  of  the  Law, 
and  neglecting  the  considerations  which  have  been  urged  above 
which  involve  a  sterner  view,  have  thought  that  the  wife  and 
children  were  taken  only  to  witness  the  punishment  of  the 
criminal,  were  spectators  only,  and  not  victims.  There  is  an 
ambiguity  in  the  language  which  seems  to  favour  this  opinion. 
After  mentioning  that  he,  his  family,  and  his  possessions  were' 
brought  down  to  the  valley,  it  is  said  :  "All  Israel  stoned  hijn 
with  stones,"  and  "  they  raised  over  him  a  great  heap  of  stones." 
But  immediately  afterwards  we  read  :  "  They  burned  thefn  with 
fire  after  they  had  stoned  them  ;  "  and  though  these  words  have 
been  supposed  to  refer  not  to  the  wife  and  children,  but  only 
to  the  sheep  and  cattle  and  other  property,  there  are  other 
reasons  which  make  it  certain  that  the  members  of  his  family 
perished  with  him.  The  use  of  the  singular  and  plural  in 
Hebrew  is  very  indefinite,^  and  we  cannot  ground  a  statement 
upon  any  such  expression  unsupported  by  other  evidence.  But 
later  on  in  the  book  we  hear  Joshua  saying  in  reference  to  this 
impressive  incident,  "  that  man  perished  not  alone  in  his 
iniquity  "  (chap.  xxii.  20),  where  the  point  of  the  allusion  consists 
in  the  fact  that  the  consequences  of  his  sin  extended  to  others. 
And  significantly  enough  in  the  genealogical  list  of  i  Chron. 
ii.  7  the  line  of  Carmi  ends  with  "  Achar,  the  troubler  of  Israel," 
who  left  no  children  to  continue  his  family.  The  scene  of  this 
terrible  occurrence  was  never  forgotten ;  years  afterwards  the 
prophets  referred  to  it,  though  under  changed  conditions  and 
as  conveying  spiritual  lessons.  Isaiah  (chap.  Ixv.  10)  saw  in  it  a 
place  for  herds  to  lie  down  in  ;  and  Hosea  (chap.  ii.  15)  looked 
upon  the  Valley  of  Trouble  as  the  door  of  hope.  And  such 
indeed  it  proved  in  the  present  case.  The  punishment  put 
away  the  sin,  and  restored  Israel  to  the  Divine  favour,  gave 
them  once  more  hope  of  effecting  the  conquest  of  the  land. 

The  late  events  had  left  a  feeling  of  despondency  in  Joshua's 
heart,  which  was  fully  shared  by  the  people.  All  were  perplexed 
with  the  uncertainty  that  lay  before  them.     What  were  they  to 

*  "  Pulp.  Comm."  on  Josh.  vii.  25.     Comp.  Judg.  xi.  17,  19  ;  Psa.  Lxvi.  9. 


58  JOSHUA. 

do  ?  Would  the  Lord  be  with  them  ?  Might  they  hope  for 
success  in  their  next  enterprise  ?  This  state  of  anxiety  was 
quickly  relieved.  The  voice  of  God  roused  Joshua  from  his 
Rejection.  Either  by  priestly  message,  or  by  some  Divine 
intuition,  he  was  bidden  to  take  courage,  and  once  more  to 
attack  Ai,  and  was  assured  that  it  should  fall  into  his  hands, 
with  its  king,  its  people,  and  the  land  appertaining  to  it.  In 
this  case  the  human  beings  were  to  be  devoted  to  destruc- 
tion, but  the  cattle  and  the  spoil  might  be  appropriated  to  the 
use  of  the  captors.  The  new  expedition  was  planned  with 
much  skill.  In  it  was  engaged  a  large  proportion  of  the 
people,  who  were  thus  reassured  after  their  late  d^efeat  by  the 
employment  of  such  a  force  as  must  crush  all  opposition.  The 
attack  was  conducted  by  means  of  a  stratagem  ;  but  the  exact 
details  are  difficult  to  understand.  The  device  employed  was 
an  ambuscade,  combined  with  a  simulated  retreat  and  a  sudden 
rally.  This  is  plain  enough  ;  the  perplexities  commence  when 
we  endeavour  to  comprehend  who  composed  the  ambuscade, 
and  where  they  were  posted.  We  are  first  told  that  30,000  men 
were  sent  to  lie  in  ambush  behind  the  city,  and  shortly  after- 
wards we  read  that  Joshua  posted  5,000  troops  in  secret  between 
Ai  and  Bethel.  Though  the  ravines  in  the  neighbourhood 
might  easily  conceal  the  latter  number  of  soldiers,  it  is  absurd 
to  suppose  that  the  larger  force  could  have  escaped  the  notice 
of  the  enemy  ;  nor  is  it  likely  that  he  would  have  thought  it 
necessary  to  lay  two  ambushes,  one  on  the  north-west  and  the 
other  on  the  south-west  of  the  city,  and  there  is  no  appearance 
of  the  action  of  two  such  bodies  in  the  subsequent  engagement. 
So  it  is  most  probable  that,  as  is  so  often  the  case  in  the  Old 
Testament,  there  is  a  mistake  in  the  reading  of  the  numbers, 
and  that  for  "  30,000"  we  should  read  "  5,000,"  which  was  the 
real  amount  of  troops  employed  in  the  ambuscade.  These 
were  sent  away  by  night  up  the  Wady  Suweinit  as  far  as 
Michmash  ;  and  then  turning  up  the  great  wady  west  of  Ai, 
between  that  place  and  Bethel,  they  posted  themselves  in  a 
ravine  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  from  the  city  without  having 
ever  come  in  sight  of  it.  By  the  time  that  morning  dawned 
these  dispositions  were  made.  Joshua  during  the  day  despatched 
the  main  part  of  his  forces  to  occupy  a  position  on  the  north 
of  Ai,  above  the  deep  and  narrow  bed  of  the  Wady  Mutyah, 
and  he  himself  with  a  picked  body  of  troops  ascended  the 


FIRST  CHECK-    ITS      AUSE  AND   REMOVAL.  59 

gently  sloping  valley  and  appeared  before  the  town  on  the 
open  plain  which  stretches  to  the  east  and  south.'  Here  they 
were  discovered  on  the  following  morning  by  the  King  of  Ai, 
who  knew  nothing  of  the  ambush,  nor  of  the  largeness  of  the 
force  concealed  in  the  hills  behind  him.  He  saw  a  compara- 
tively small  detachment  advancing  to  the  attack,  and  supposing 
that  he  would  defeat  them  as  easily  as  on  the  former  occasion, 
he  boldly  sallied  out  against  them.  Joshua  had  posted  himself 
with  his  spear  in  hand  on  a  knoll  where  he  was  clearly  visible 
to  his  troops  in  their  various  dispositions,  and  was  able  to 
regulate  their  movements.  By  his  direction  the  Hebrews 
offered  no  resistance  to  the  assault  of  the  Canaanites,  but, 
as  before,  fled  down  the  valley  towards  the  Arabah,  and  drew 
their  pursuers  far  away  from  the  city.  With  exultant  cries,  as 
if  the  victory  were  already  won,  all  the  men  of  war  flocked 
fromi  the  town,  and  followed  the  flying  Hebrews  ;  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Bethel  joined  in  the  chase,  so  that  both  towns  were  left 
destitute  of  defenders.  This  was  the  moment  to  which  Joshua 
had  looked  forward.  He  raised  his  spear  with  the  pennon 
attached  to  it  towards  heaven.  It  was  the  signal  agreed  upon. 
The  ambuscade  rose  from  their  concealment,  hurried  up  the 
ravine,  seized  the  defenceless  city  and  set  it  on  fire.  At  the 
sight  of  the  smoke,  which  told  them  that  the  stratagem  was 
successful,  the  Israelites  suddenly  turned  upon  their  pursuers, 
the  main  body  of  troops  showed  themselves  in  the  rear,  and 
the  Canaanites,  thus  placed  between  two  armies,  and  seeing 
their  city  burning,  were  panic-stricken,  could  offer  no  effectual 
resistance,  and  were  massacred  to  a  man.  The  King  of  Ai 
himself  was  taken  alive,  and  brought  before  the  victorious 
general,  who  put  him  to  death,  and  hung  his  dead  body  on 
a  cross  or  gallows  till  eventide,  when  it  was  taken  down  and 
flung  dishonoured  at  the  gate  of  his  late  prosperous  city,  a 
huge  heap  of  stones  being  raised  over  it.  The  city  was  utterly 
destroyed,  so  as  to  be  a  heap  and  a  desolation  for  many  a 
long  day,  the  inhabitants  to  the  number  of  twelve  thousand, 
men  and  women,  were  put  to  the  sword,  and  nothing  was 
spared  but  the  cattle  and  a  certain  portion  of  the  spoil,  which 
was  the  reward  of  the  conquerors.     Jericho,  as  the  firstfruits 

*  Conder,  "Quarterly  Statement,"  April,  1874.  It  is  strange  that  in 
spite  of  careful  survey  of  the  ground  the  site  of  Ai  is  not  even  yet  accurately 
determined. 


6o  JOSHUA. 

of  victory  in  the  land,  had  been  wholly  devoted  to  the  Lord. 
It  was  not  so  with  Ai  ;  and  the  appropriation  of  the  enemies' 
possessions  under  certain  restrictions  was  quite  lawful.  A  site 
so  favourable,  however,  was  not  allowed  to  remain  unoccupied 
for  ever.  A  city  in  the  course  of  time  arose  on  the  ruins.  The 
prophet,  beholding  in  vision  the  Assyrian  invader  marching 
from  the  north  on  Jerusalem,  sees  him  pass  up  the  valley 
between  Ai  (Aiath)  and  Michmash  ;  and  in  the  Books  of  Ezra 
and  Nehemiah,  among  the  number  of  those  who  returned  from 
the  Captivity  are  one  or  two  hundred  from  Bethel  and  Ai,  who 
doubtless  retained  a  traditional  knowledge  of  their  old  homes,  and 
found  buildings  still  standing  in  the  locality.^  Whether  Joshua 
took  Bethel  at  this  time  is  not  stated.  It  is  not  likely  that  he 
would  have  left  unsubdued  a  fortified  city  in  his  close  vicinity, 
especially  as  the  inhabitants  had  joined  the  people  of  Ai  in 
their  attack  upon  his  forces.  At  the  same  time,  as  its  fighting 
men  had  perished  in  the  late  encounter,  he  may  have  thought 
that  its  destruction  was  of  no  immediate  consequence.  That 
Bethel  was  captured  with  its  king  is  expressly  mentioned  in  the 
catalogue  of  conquests  (chap,  xii.)  ;  but  the  mode  of  its  capture 
as  detailed  in  the  first  chapter  of  Judges  leads  one  to  suspect 
that  it  was  taken  somewhat  later  in  the  war.  The  story  as 
there  told  is  this.  Being  a  Hittite  city  it  was  not  left  long 
unoccupied,  and  the  house  of  Joseph,  i.e.^  Ephraim,  on  the 
confines  of  whose  territory  it  was  situated  (though  actually 
allotted  to  Benjamin),  determined  to  make  themselves  masters 
of  the  place.  They  came  against  it  with  a  large  force,  and  the 
Bethelites  not  daring  to  meet  them  in  the  open  field  confined 
themselves  to  their  walls.  The  Hebrews  refrained,  from  a 
regular  assault,  having  no  ladders  or  engines  prepared  for  such 
an  attempt ;  but  they  blockaded  the  place,  carefully  watching 
all  the  approaches,  having,  as  it  seems,  a  suspicion  that  there 
was  an  easier  entrance  to  it  than  that  which  appeared.  Their 
surmise  proved  to  be  correct.  They  found  a  man  stealing  out 
of  the  city  without  having  passed  the  gate,  and  bribed  him  by 
the  promise  of  safety  to  betray  this  secret  entrance.  By  his 
means  they  surprised  the  city  and  put  the  inhabitants  to  the 
sword,  sparing  no  one  but  the  traitor  and  his  family.  Of  the 
later  history  of  Bethel  and  its  degradation  in  the  time  of  the 

*  Isaiah  x.  28  ;  Ezra  ii.  28  ;  Neheni.  vii.  32, 


FIRST  CHECK— ITS  CAUSE  AND  REMOVAL.  6l 

kings  of  Israel,  we  have  not  now  to  speak— how  the  House  of 
God  became  the  House  of  idols. 

•■•  Where  angels  down  the  lucid  stair 
Came  hovering  to  our  sainted  sires. 
Now,  in  the  twilight,  glare 
The  heathen's  wizard  fires. "  * 


«  Keble,  "  Christian  Year,"  Eigh4Ji  Sunday  after  Trinity. 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE  LAW  SET  UP  IN   CANAAN 

Injunction  ot  Moses  ;  its  import — Pilgrimage  to  Shechem — Ebal  and 
Gerizim,  and  the  Vale  of  Shechem — The  altar  of  unhewn  stones 
erected — Inscription  on  stones— The  blessing  and  the  cursing. 


■3^ 


some  of  the  last  injunctions  of  Moses  to  the  Israehtes  were 
included  directions  for  the  setting  up  of  the  Law  in  the  heart  of 
the  country,  as  soon  as  circumstances  permitted.  The  com- 
mand, which  was  an  evidence  of  perfect  faith  in  God's  promises, 
was  as  follows  :  "  It  shall  be  on  the  day  when  ye  shall  pass 
over  Jordan  unto  the  land  which  the  Lord  thy  God  giveth  thee, 
that  thou  shalt  set  thee  up  great  stones,  and  plaister  them  with 
plaister  ;  and  thou  shalt  write  upon  them  all  the  words  of  this 
law.  .  .  .  Behold,  I  set  before  you  this  day  a  blessing  and  a 
curse,  .  .  .  and  thou  shalt  set  the  blessing  upon  Mount  Gerizim, 
and  the  curse  upon  Mount  Ebal.  Are  they  not  beyond  Jordan, 
behind  the  way  of  the  going  down  of  the  sun,  in  the  land  of  the 
Canaanites  which  dwell  in  the  Arabah,  over  against  Gilgal, 
beside  the  oaks  of  Moreh  ?  .  .  .  And  there  shalt  thou  build  an 
altar  unto  the  Lord  thy  God,  an  altar  of  stones,  ...  of  unhewn 
stones  ;  and  thou  shalt  offer  burnt-offerings  thereon  unto  the 
Lord  thy  God  ;  and  thou  shalt  sacrifice  peace-offerings,  and 
shalt  eat  there  ;  and  thou  shalt  rejoice  before  the  Lord  thy 
God.  And  thou  shalt  write  upon  the  stones  all  the  words  of 
this  law  very  plainly.'"  It  was  evident  that  Moses  desired  that 
this  injunction  should  be  executed  as  soon  as  possible  after 
the  passage  of  Jordan.  He  thought  it  most  important.  Twice 
had  he  referred  to  its  accomplishment,  and  pointed  out  the 
spot  where  the  transaction  was  to  take  place.  What,  then,  was 
*  Deut.  xi.  26  ff.  ;  xxvii.  2  ff. 


THE  LAW   SET  UP   IN  CANAAN.  63 

the  significance  of  this  unparalleled  ceremony?  No  other 
people  ever  thus  inaugurated  its  occupancy  of  a  new  country  ; 
the  whole  proceeding  was  abnormal  and  peculiar.  By  this 
religious  act  the  Israelites  took  possession  of  Canaan  in  the 
name  of  the  Lord.  A  sudden  pause  in  the  career  of  conquest 
is  made  in  order  to  consecrate  the  land  and  the  mode  by  which 
it  was  obtained.  Henceforward  the  Law  of  the  Lord  was  to  be 
the  principle  by  which  the  country  was  governed  ;  this  was  set 
up  in  the  most  central  position,  solemnly  proclaimed  in  the  very 
heart  of  the  transferred  territory,  in  order  that  all  men,  contem- 
poraries and  posterity,  might  recognize  the  Divine  intention  in 
the  conquest  of  Palestine,  and  the  responsibilities  which  that 
possession  involved — a  law  to  obey,  a  curse  to  avoid.  Here 
was  Israel's  strength  ;  here  was  the  guide  which  would  lead 
them  to  complete  victory  ;  here  were  the  conditions  which 
would  secure  their  national  life. 

Eager  as  Joshua  was  to  execute  the  commands  of  his  master, 
for  which  undertaking  the  way  seemed  to  be  marvellously 
opened,  there  were  many  difficulties  to  be  considered  before 
effecting  the  movement.  It  was  not  to  be  a  mere  military 
expedition  ;  that  would  have  been  simple  enough  ;  but  this 
was  to  be  a  national  enterprise,  the  whole  congregation  was  to 
take  part  therein  ;  if  the  whole  assembly  was  not  actually 
present,  a  very  large  representative  body — men,  women,  chil- 
dren, and  strangers — was  to  behold  the  ceremony.  Now  from 
Gilgal  to  the  appointed  scene  of  the  transaction,  Shechem,  was 
a  distance  of  thirty  miles,  and  this  could  not  be  traversed  by 
such  a  company  under  two  or  three  days.  The  pilgrimage 
would  have  to  be  accomplished  in  the  midst  of  a  hostile 
country,  and  might  be  molested  by  the  enemy.^     Doubtless 

I  Many  critics  have  been  so  greatly  influenced  by  the  supposed  diffi- 
culties connected  with  the  performance  of  the  ceremony  at  this  early  stage 
of  the  conquest,  that  they  consider  the  account  in  chap.  viii.  30-35  as  an 
interpolation,  introduced  by  a  later  editor  to  support  the  theory  of  an 
early  date  for  Deuteronomy ;  or  else  as  transposed  from  its  proper  place  at 
the  end  of  chap,  xi.,  where  it  would  naturally  occur  as  a  climax  to  the 
narrative  of  the  complete  occupation  of  the  country,  in  which  connection, 
indeed,  Josephus  ("  Ant."  v.  1. 19)  places  the  transaction.  In  some  MSS.  of 
the  Septuagint  the  paragraph  is  found  after  ix.  2.  If,  as  the  destructive 
critics  say,  the  Book  of  Joshua  has  passed  through  the  hands  of  many 
editors,  it  is  strange  that  none  of  them  should  have  noticed  the  difficulties 
which  modern  readers  feel,  and  rectified  the  present  arrangement.     Is  it 


64  JOSHUA. 

such  reflections  were  presented  to  the  leader's  mind  ;  but  they 
were  counterbalanced  by  other  considerations.  There  was 
little  to  be  feared  at  this  moment  from  any  hostile  attack. 
The  complete  destruction  of  Jericho  and  Ai  had  quelled  all 
opposition  in  that  immediate  neighbourhood.  The  enemies 
now  to  be  encountered  lived  far  away  to  the  south  and  no:th  ; 
between  them  lay  a  district  of  wood  and  forest,  thinly  popu- 
lated, and  possessing  no  stronghold  of  importance.  Gerizim 
was  only  twenty  miles  from  Ai,  and  the  road  was  now  safe  and 
unimpeded.  Far  from  interfering  with  the  Hebrews  in  the 
prosecution  of  their  strange  enterprise,  the  alarmed  Canaanites 
would  be  probably  more  awestricken  by  these  religious  cere- 
monies performed  by  a  people  so  evidently  favoured  by 
heavenly  powers.  And  there  was  this  further  thought  in 
Joshua's  mind  :  it  was  his  duty  thus  to  dedicate  the  new 
kingdom  ;  and  duty  with  him  was  always  paramount.  What- 
ever perils  or  difficulties  lay  in  the  path,  his  supreme  faith  in 
Jehovah  would  carry  him  through  all  in  safety.  So  with  no 
further  misgiving  he  at  once  proceeded  to  execute  the  design 
so  carefully  sketched  out  by  Moses. 

As  the  coming  ceremony  was  not  only  religious,  but  also,  so 
to  speak,  educational,  the  entire  community  were  engaged  to 
take  part  in  it.  Accordingly  a  large  contingent,  consisting  of 
members  of  every  age  and  sex  in  the  twelve  tribes,  civil  and 
ecclesiastical,  native-born,  and  strangers  who  had  attached 
themselves  to  the  chosen  people,  was  conducted  from  the 
permanent  camp  at  Gilgal  to  the  previously  appointed  spot 
This,  as  we  have  seen,  was  a  locality  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
mountains  Ebal  and  Gerizim,  already  designated  by  Moses, 
in  allusion  to  an  incident  in  the  life  of  Abraham,  as  "beside 
the  oaks  of  Moreh."  '  To  this  sacred  spot,  where  the  city  of 
Shechem  stood,  the  congregation  moved  by  easy  stages.  The 
city  itself  at  this  time  was  of  small  importance.  It  was  in- 
habited by  a  tribe  of  Hivites,  who  had  probably  fled  at  the 
approach  of  the  Hebrews,  being  unable  to  offer  any  effectual 
opposition.  Here,  in  the  loveliest  scene  of  central  Palestine, 
where  Abraham  built  his  first  altar  to  the  Lord  in  the  Promised 
Land,  where  Jacob  settled  on  his  return  from  Padan-Aram  and 

not  more  simple  to  suppose  that  the  occurrence  took  place  as  stated  in  the 
text,  and  that  the  narrator  saw  no  impossibility  therein  ? 
»  See  "  Abraham  :  His  Life  and  Times,"  p.  31  f. 


THE  LAW  SET  UP   IN  CANAAN.  65 

digged  a  well,  which  was  and  is  still  well  known,  where  the 
same  patriarch  had  bought  a  burying-place  which  his  descend- 
ants were  directed  to  use  for  the  resting-place  of  Joseph's 
embalmed  body,  carried  with  them  throughout  their  wander- 
ings, here  the  host  encamped  in  expectation  of  the  solemn 
ceremonial.  The  valley  where  the  tents  were  pitched  runs 
east  and  west,  having  Mount  Ebal  on  the  north,  which  rises 
3,076  feet  above  sea-level,  and  Gerizim  on  the  south,  at  an 
elevation  of  2,848  feet.  The  bases  of  these  mountains  are 
scarcely  500  yards  apart  in  one  place,  but  eastwards  the  valley 
opens  into  a  much  broader  plain,  beautifully  watered  and 
abundantly  fertile.  The  summits  of  the  two  hills  are  nearly 
two  miles  distant  from  each  other,  Ebal  rising  stern  and 
barren,  Gerizim  fruitful  and  picturesque,  with  the  town  of 
Shechem  at  its  foot,  the  houses  extending  some  way  up  the 
slope. 

"  Deep  beneath  the  eye"  [of  a  traveller  advancing  from  the 
south],  says  Sir  R.  Temple,'  "  is  a  plain,  green  with  the  rising 
crops,  and  surrounded  by  hills.  It  looks  like  a  lake  in  the  bosom 
of  the  mountains.  In  these  latitudes  the  crops  are  early,  and 
at  a  distance  seem  to  cover  the  ground  with  a  carpet  of  tender 
verdure,  although  the  winter  season  is  not  yet  ended.  This  is 
the  vale  of  Shechem,  now  called  El  Makhna.  Conspicuous 
among  the  hills  on  the  left,  or  western  side,  is  Gerizim,  a 
majestic  mass  of  limestone,  with  stately  head  and  precipitous 
sides.  Ebal  is  the  sister  mount  of  Gerizim,  but  can  hardly  be 
seen  at  all  from  this  point.  Its  top,  however,  can,  by  careful 
observation,  be  descried  over  the  ridge  of  Gerizim.  In  our 
front,  and  a  little  beyond  Gerizim,  is  the  hill  of  Tirzah,  and  at  it^ 
foot  Shalem.  .  .  .  Beyond  that,  again,  rises  up  a  pyramid  of 
snow,  in  the  distance  bounding  the  northern  horizon.  This  is 
Hermon,  which  to  the  Jews  of  all  generations  has  been  the 
most  conspicuous  object  in  their  national  landscape.  .  .  .  The 
twin  giants,  Ebal  and  Gerizim,  rise  up  majestically,  the  joint 
monarchs  of  the  central  ridge.  They  are  joined  together 
near  their  bases  by  a  lower  ridge  of  that  form  which  geo- 
graphers designate  a  saddle.  On  that  saddle  is  situated 
the  Turkish  town  of  Nabalus,  occupying  the  site  of  the 
historic  Neapolis.  ...  As  the  traveller  advances  closer  and 
closer,  both  mountains  loom  forth  grander  and  grander,  their 
*  "  Palestine  Illustrated,"  pp.  156,  164. 
6 


66  JOSHUA. 

rocky  outlines  being  strongly  marked  against  the  sunset 
sky."  Midway  between  the  two  mountains  is  found  Joseph's 
tomb,  standing  within  a  rude  enclosure.  The  interior,  which 
is  without  any  architectural  adornment,  is  divided  into  two 
sections,  the  tomb  being  in  the  one  furthest  south.  Here 
were  buried  the  remains  of  Joseph,  which  had  been  carefully 
brought  from  Egypt  and  preserved  amid  the  wanderings  in 
the  desert.  It  is  not  improbable  that  the  patriarch's  mummy 
might  be  found  uninjured  even  to  this  day.  About  a  third 
of  a  mile  south  of  the  tomb  is  Jacob's  well,  a  site  as 
authenticated  as  any  in  the  land.  A  vaulted  chamber  has 
been  erected  over  the  well,  which  has  helped  to  preserve  its 
existence  ;  but  it  is  becoming  gradually  choked  with  stones 
and  rubbish.  Sixty  years  ago  Robinson  found  its  depth  to  be 
105  feet  ;  late  travellers  estimate  it  at  only  35.  Situated  on  the 
main  road  from  Judaea  to  Samaria,  and  just  at  the  spot  where 
the  requirements  of  the  narrative  place  it,  this  well  is  un- 
doubtedly the  one  on  whose  margin  the  Saviour  sat  while  He 
discoursed  with  the  woman  of  Samaria,  and  taught  her  whence 
to  seek  "  living  water." 

Such  was  the  locality  where  the  Israelites  assembled  to  carry 
out  the  great  lawgiver's  strange  injunction. 

The  first  act  of  the  ceremony  was  the  erection  of  an  altar  on 
Mount  Ebal,  and  the  offering  of  sacrifices  thereon.  The  altar 
was  to  be  of  whole,  unhewn  stones,  upon  which  no  man  had 
lifted  tool  of  iron.  Many  reasons  for  this  hmitation  have  been 
assigned.  Some  of  the  Talmudists  taught  that  it  was  intended 
to  prevent  the  superstitious  preservation  of  particles  chipped 
from  the  stones  consecrated  to  this  use  ;  or  for  a  mystic  reason, 
viz.,  that  whereas  the  altar  was  used  for  the  beatification  and 
preservation  of  man's  life,  iron  was  employed  to  shorten  and 
injure  it,  and  was  therefore  excluded  from  holy  rites  and 
religious  accessories.  Others,  again,  see  in  it  only  the  desire  on 
the  part  of  the  lawgiver  to  differentiate  Hebrew  worship  from 
that  of  heathen  nations,  who  raised  elaborate  altars  and 
adorned  them  with  much  art.  The  Jew  was  drawn  to  regard 
the  spiritual  view  of  the  ceremony  in  which  the  altar  was  era- 
ployed,  and  not  to  dwell  upon  the  costliness  or  beauty  of  the 
material  vehicle.  Christian  interpreters  consider  that  thus  was 
inculcated  the  lesson  that  in  God's  service  all  should  be  spon- 
taneous, and  that  as  little  as  possible  of  human  devising  should 


THE  LAW  SET  UP  IN  CANAAN.  (i^ 

be  introduced  therein  ;  *  or  that  herein  was  adumbrated  the 
transitoriness  and  imperfection  of  the  Mosaic  ritual ;  or  else 
was  given  an  intimation  that,  as  sacrifice  is  rendered  necessary 
by  man's  earthly  and  carnal  nature,  earth  is  the  fittest  material 
for  his  altar,  unhewn  stone  being  the  only  substitute  allowed. 
Whatever  may  have  been  the  real  reason  of  the  command, 
Joshua  strictly  obeyed  it,  and  raised  an  altar  of  unhewn  stones 
on  the  summit  of  Mount  Ebal,  already  probably  a  patriarchal 
holy  place,  and  there  offered  burnt-offerings  in  propitiation  and 
peace-offerings  in  thanksgiving,  thus  dedicating  the  people  to 
the  Lord  and  expressing  their  gratitude  for  the  favour  accorded 
to  them.  This  important  preliminary  having  been  completed, 
the  second  part  of  the  solemnity  was  taken  in  hand.  This  was 
in  effect  a  renewal  of  the  covenant  on  the  entrance  into  the 
land  of  promise.  The  mode  of  this  renewal  was  carefully  pre- 
scribed, because  by  this  was  promulgated  the  great  truth  that 
it  was  by  virtue  of  the  law  the  people  took  possession  of  the 
country,  and  that  they  acknowledged  themselves  bound  by  this 
law,  and  were  willing  to  show  all  due  obedience.  Hereupon 
certain  stone  pillars  were  set  up,  which  were  covered  with  a 
.coating  of  plaster  composed  of  lime  or  gypsum,  and  on  this 
cement  was  written  "  a  copy  of  the  law  of  Moses."  It  is  not 
necessary  to  suppose  that  the  words  were  graven  in  the  stones ; 
writings  in  plaster,  under  a  climate  such  as  that  of  Palestine, 
were  naturally  indestructible,  and  indeed  have  been  found 
perfect  after  two  thousand  and  more  years.  Some  of  these 
inscriptions  are  simply  incised  or  indented  in  the  plaster,  others 
are  filled  in  with  coloured  substance,  red  or  black.  "  In  this 
hot  climate,"  says  Dr.  Thomson,^  "  where  there  is  no  frost  to 
dissolve  the  cement,  it  will  continue  hard  and  unbroken  for 
thousands  of  years,  which  is  certainly  long  enough.  That  on 
Solomon's  porch  remains  in  admirable  preservation,  though 
exposed  to  all  the  vicissitudes  of  the  climate,  and  with  no 
protection.  The  cement  in  the  tombs  about  Sidon  is  still 
perfect,  and  the  writing  on  them  entire,  though  acted  upon  by 
the  moist,  damp  air  always  found  in  caverns,  for  perhaps  two 
thousand  years.  What  Joshua  did,  therefore,  when  he  erected 
those  great  stones  at  Mount  Ebal,  was  merely  to  write  in  the 
still  soft  cement  with  a  stile,  or,  more  likely,  on  the  polished 
surface,  when  dry,  with  ink  or  paint,  as  seen  in  ancient  tombs. 
'  So  " PulpiV  Coram."  2« /i?^.  '  "Central  Palestine,"  140. 


X" 


68  JOSHUA. 

Properly  sheltered,  and  not  broken  off  by  violence,  the  cement 
would  have  remained  to  this  day."  In  Egypt  the  Israelites  had 
seen  not  merely  monumental  stones,  but  the  whole  walls  of 
temples  thus  adorned ;  and  there  were  doubtless  many  skilful 
workmen  among  them  who  could  copy  the  words  committed  to 
them  by  Joshua  and  the  priests.  It  is,  however,  difficult  to 
decide  what  was  actually  inscribed  on  the  memorial.  The 
words  in  the  text  are  :  "  a  copy  of  the  law  of  Moses  which  he 
wrote  in  the  presence  of  the  children  of  Israel."  The  first  part 
of  the  sentence  is  hterally  "  the  doubling  of  the  law  of  Moses," 
"  Deuteronomium  legis  Moysi,"  as  the  Latin  Vulgate  has  it 
(with  which  the  Septuagint  agrees).  This  is  equivalent  to  our 
term  *'  duplicate,"  and  implies  the  copy  of  a  document.  And 
"  which  he  wrote  "  must  mean  that  Joshua  inscribed  this  "law" 
in  the  sight  of  the  assembled  Israelites.  It  seems  impossible 
to  suppose  that  the  whole  of  Deuteronomy  was  here  written ; 
neither  time  nor  space  could  have  been  afforded  for  so  lengthy 
a  document ;  still  less  could  the  whole  law  have  been  set  forth 
with  all  its  enactments,  narratives,  genealogies,  &c.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  the  Decalogue  alone  were  meant,  these  "  great 
stones  "  (Deut.  xxvii.  2)  would  not  have  been  required.  Nor 
must  the  term  be  restricted  to  the  blessings  and  cursings  which 
were  at  this  time  solemnly  announced  ;  these  could  not  have 
been  designated  by  Moses  as  "  all  the  words  of  this  law." 
What  is  meant  by  the  expression  is  the  strictly  legislative 
portion  of  the  Law,  which,  according  to  the  Jews,  amounted 
to  six  hundred  and  thirteen  enactments.  These  were  impressed 
on  the  monumental  stones,  perhaps  at  the  conclusion  of  the 
ceremony,  and  thus  the  Israelites  were  perpetually  reminded 
of  the  tenure  by  which  they  held  the  land  of  promise,  the 
conditions  on  which  depended  their  national  prosperity  and 
existence. 

And  now  the  third  and  most  impressive  scene  of  the  great 
solemnity  was  enacted.  In  the  centre  of  the  valley  between 
Ebal  and  Gerizim  was  placed  the  ark  with  its  company  of 
priests  and  Levites,  surrounded  by  the  elders,  officers,  and 
judges.  The  visible  token  of  the  presence  of  God  hallowed 
the  whole  ceremonial,  and  every  detail  was  performed  as  in 
the  sight  of  the  Most  High.  Outside  the  circle  formed  by  the 
ecclesiastical  and  civil  chiefs  was  gathered  the  multitude, 
consisting  of  the  people  who  had  made  the  pilgrimage  from 


THE  LAW  SET  UP  IN  CANAAN.  69 

Gilgal  in  order  to  take  part  in  this  solemnity.  These  were 
divided  into  two  bodies  ;  the  tribes  that  sprung  from  the  two 
wives  of  Jacob,  viz.,  Simeon,  Levi,  Judah,  Issachar,  Joseph  and 
Benjamin,  stood  at  the  base  and  up  the  slope  of  Gerizim, 
while  on  Ebal  were  gathered  those  descended  from  the 
handmaids  Zilpah  and  Bilhah,  viz.,  Gad,  Asher,  Dan,  and 
Naphtali,  to  which  were  added,  in  order  to  make  the  number 
equal,  Reuben,  who  by  his  crime  had  forfeited  the  right  of 
primogeniture,  and  Zebulun,  the  youngest  son  of  Leah. 
"  Joseph "  of  course  connotes  the  tribes  of  Ephraim  and 
Manasseh,  and  "  Levi "  here  takes  its  place  with  the  others, 
.hough  generally  and  for  secular  purposes  it  has  no  part  with 
its  brethren.  At  the  water-parting  near  the  eastern  end  of  the 
vale  there  is  a  natural  amphitheatre  formed  by  recesses  in 
the  two  mountains  exactly  facing  one  another,  and  where, 
curiously  enough,  "  the  limestone  strata,  running  up  to  the  very 
summits  in  a  succession  of  ledges,  present  the  appearance  of  a 
series  of  regular  benches."  There  is  no  place  in  all  Palestine 
better  suited  for  the  orderly  assembly  of  an  immense  body  of 
men  so  arranged  that  all  could  see  the  proceedings,  and, 
within  the  limits  reached  by  a  human  voice,  hear  what  was 
said.  It  must  have  reminded  Joshua  of  that  revered 
locality  in  Sinai  hallowed  by  the  giving  of  the  Law.  When 
all  was  arranged,  Joshua  and  the  priests  standing  in  the  centre 
of  the  valley  recited  the  Law  of  Moses,  ending  with  twelve 
curses  and  twelve  blessings,  to  the  former  of  which  the  people 
assembled  on  Ebal  responded  "  Amen,"  and  to  the  latter  those 
on  Gerizim.  We  may  observe  that  the  group  on  Gerizim  far 
exceeded  the  others  in  number  and  importance,  as  if  to  indicate 
that  in  the  end  the  blessing  should  prevail.^  That  such  a 
proceeding  was  quite  feasible  is  evident.  The  acoustic 
properties  of  the  valley  of  Shechem  have  been  tested  by 
modern  travellers,  who,  when  standing  on  one  of  the  mountains, 
have  found  no  difficulty  in  hearing  words  spoken  on  the  other  ; 
and  Canon  Tristram  records  that,  during  his  travels  in  the 
Holy  Land,  two  of  his  party  stationing  themselves  on  the 
opposite  mountains  recited  the  ten  commandments  antiphonally, 
and  heard  each  other  most  distinctly.  The  twelve  curses  are 
given  in  full,  and  are  all  concerned  with  special  breaches  of 
*  "Speaker's  Commentary,"  Deut.  xxvii.  12.  "  Quarterly  Statement," 
1873.  p.  67. 


70  JOSHUA. 

the  commandments,  except  the  last,   which  is  conceived  in 

general  terms  condemning  every  infringement  of  the  law. 
Members  of  the  English  Church  are  familiarized  with  this 
formulary  by  the  use  of  the  Commination  Service  on  Ash- 
Wednesday,  which  is  framed  after  this  ordinance.  Each 
curse  was  followed  by  its  corresponding  blessing,  the  respon- 
sive "  Amen  "  testifying  the  utterers'  conviction  of  the  truth, 
justice,  and  certainty  of  the  sentences,  and  their  desire  and 
willingness  to  abide  by  them.  The  particular  subjects  dealt 
with  in  the  imprecations  were  idolatry,  dishonouring  of  parents, 
removal  of  landmarks,  inhumanity,  unnatural  crimes,  murder  ; 
the  blessings  are  not  specified  in  the  account  of  the  ceremony, 
but  we  may  gather  their  nature  from  the  corresponding  passage 
in  Deuteronomy  (chap,  xxviii.),  where  blessings  are  promised 
on  city  and  field,  on  man  and  cattle,  on  the  basket  and  the 
kneading-trough,  on  going  out  and  coming  in,  on  contest  with 
enemies,  on  relations  with  foreign  peoples.  Here  was  a  sketch 
of  the  working  of  the  Divine  law  and  of  the  moral  government 
of  God.  The  Hebrews  needed  promises  and  threats  to  keep 
them  true  to  their  allegiance  ;  the  old  law  had  its  rewards  and 
its  punishments,  and  both  must  be  plainly  set  forth  for  the 
guidance  of  the  theocratic  people. 


CHAPTER  VL 

CONQUEST  OF  THE  SOUTH. 

Gibeon  and  its  confederate  cities,  Beeroth,  Kirjath-jearim,  and  Chephirah — 
Stratagem  of  the  Gibeonites  ;  its  success  ;  their  destiny— Five  kings 
combine  to  attack  Gibeon— Jerusalem— Jarmuth — Joshua  marches  to 
reheve  Gibeon — Battle  of  Beth-horon — Hailstorm — The  daylight 
lengthened — The  miracle  considered — Defeat  of  the  Canaanites — 
Azekah  ;  Makkedah — Humiliation  and  execution  of  the  kings — The 
southern  campaign — Conquest  of  Makkedah  ;  Libnah  ;  Lachish  ; 
Gezer  ;  Eglon  ;  Hebron ;  Debir— The  Hills— The  Negeb— The 
Shephelah— The  Slopes— Kadesh-barnea— Goshen — The  dispossession 
only  partial. 

At  the  conclusion  of  the  ceremonies  narrated  in  the  last 
chapter,  which  took  some  days  to  accomplish,  Joshua  led  back 
his  forces  and  the  assembled  host  to  the  permanent  camp  at 
Gilgal,  intending  thence  to  set  out  on  a  new  campaign.  Some 
critics,  expatiating  on  the  difficulty  of  moving  this  large  mass 
of  people  backwards  and  forwards,  have  thought  that  at  this 
time  the  headquarters  were  moved  from  the  Jordan  Valley  to 
another  place  named  Gilgal,  situated  near  the  oaks  of  Moreh, 
a  few  miles  north  of  Bethel,  and  still  known  by  the  name  of 
Jiljilia.  This  would  indeed  have  been  a  central  situation,  and, 
as  far  as  we  know,  a  favourable  post  from  which  to  direct 
future  operations.  Whether  it  was  as  fitted  as  the  lower  plains 
for  the  support  of  the  mixed  congregation  with  its  numerous 
flocks  and  herds  may  reasonably  be  doubted.  And  there  are 
two  considerations  fatal  to  the  conjecture.  First,  the  narrator, 
if  he  was  aware  of  this  change  of  position,  would  not  have 
constantly  referred  to  "  the  camp  at  Gilgal,"  knowing  that  his 
readers  must  necessarily  believe  that  the  original  encampment 
in  the  Arabah  was  meant ;    and  secondly,   in  the  account  of 


72  JOSHUA. 

subsequent  operations  we  read:  "Joshua  ascended  from 
Gilgal,  .  .  .  went  up  from  Gilgal  all  night."  This  could  not  be 
said  of  a  march  from  Jiljilia  to  Gibeon,  while  it  is  exactly 
suitable  to  a  movement  from  the  low-lying  Jordan  Valley  to  the 
mountainous  region  wherein  Gibeon  was  situated.  While 
Joshua  tarried  a  few  days  at  Gilgal,  an  event  occurred  which 
had  momentous  consequences. 

Six  or  seven  miles  south  of  Bethel,  and  about  five  north-west 
of  Jerusalem,  stood  the  city  of  Gibeon,  on  a  lower  eminence  at 
the  northern  slope  of  the  lofty  mountain  Mizpeh  or  Neby 
Samwil.  This  hill,  so  named  from  an  erroneous  Mussulman 
tradition  that  herein  lie  buried  the  remains  of  the  great 
prophet  Samuel,  is  a  remarkable  feature  in  the  landscape, 
standing  at  the  head  of  the  pass  of  Beth-horon,  and  from  its 
high  elevation,  2,647  feet  above  sea  level,  commanding  a  most 
extensive  prospect,  which  embraces  Joppa  and  the  western 
plain  and  the  Mediterranean  Sea  on  one  side,  and  on  the  other 
Jerusalem,  Olivet,  and  the  distant  Moabite  hills  beyond  the 
Jordan  and  the  Dead  Sea.  Gibeon,  identified  with  the  modern 
village  El-Jib,  is  placed  on  an  oblong  ridge  composed  of  lime- 
stone rock,  rising,  as  it  were,  in  steps  out  of  the  plain,  in  many 
places  difficult  of  access,  and  capable  of  being  everywhere  very 
strongly  fortified.'  Its  position  on  the  great  highway  from  the 
sea-board  into  the  interior,  and  commanding  the  chief  pass  over 
the  mountain,  has  tended  to  maintain  its  existence  and  celebrity 
unto  the  present  day.  Immediately  in  front  stretched  a  tract 
of  fertile  ground,  producing  not  only  abundant  crops  of  grain, 
but  likewise  olives,  grapes,  figs,  and  other  fruits.  At  this  time 
it  was  a  place  of  vast  importance  ;  it  is  described  as  "  a  great 
city,  as  one  of  the  royal  cities,  greater  than  Ai,  and  all  the  men 
thereof  were  mighty."  It  was,  in  fact,  the  chief  of  four  con- 
federate cities  occupied  by  Hivites,  who  were  not  governed  by 
a  king,  but  formed  a  kind  of  republic  under  certain  elected 
elders,  and  thus  enjoyed  a  constitution  similar  to  that  of  the 
free  towns  of  Germany.  The  inhabitants  are  said  in  2  Sam. 
xxi.  2  to  have  been  of  Amorite  extraction  ;  but  the  name 
Amorite  is  often  used  loosely  as  a  designation  of  any  Canaanite 
tribe.  '  The  other  towns  of  the  confederacy  were  Beeroth, 
Kirath-jearim,  and  Chephirah,  the  situations  of  which  are  well 

'  Stanley'  "Sinai  and  Palestine,"  214  f.  ;  Robinson,  "Researches," 
ii.  135  ff.  ;  Thomson,  "Central  Palestine,"  70. 


CONQUEST  O*    THE  SOUTH.  73 

known.  Beeroth  ("wells  ")  is  now  called  Bireh.  It  stands  on 
a  ridge  running  from  west  to  east  on  the  road  leading  north 
from  Jerusalem,  from  which  it  is  distant  about  nine  miles, 
being  two  short  of  Bethel.  As  the  first  halting-place  of  cara- 
vans travelling  towards  Galilee,  it  has  been  supposed  to  be  the 
place  whence  Mary  and  Joseph  turned  back  to  Jerusalem  on 
discovering  that  Jesus  was  not  in  their  company.  From  its 
elevated  position  it  is  visible  at  a  great  distance  both  from  the- 
north  and  south,  the  ridge  on  which  it  stands  bounding  the 
prospect  as  seen  from  Jerusalem  and  its  neighbourhood.^  It 
is  now  a  village  of  seven  hundred  inhabitants,  but  the  ruins  in 
its  vicinity  afford  proof  that  it  was  once  of  much  more  exten- 
sive dimensions  and  fortified  by  strong  walls.  Kirjath-jearim 
("  the  city  of  woods  ")  was  a  place  of  great  antiquity,  and  had 
been  taken  by  the  Hivites  from  the  original  inhabitants,  who 
had  named  it  Baalah.  Its  later  name  was  derived  from  the 
plantations  of  figs  and  olives,  and  the  thick  undergrowth  that 
covered  every  vacant  spot.  It  stood  on  a  hill  south  west  of 
Gibeon,  and  has  been  identified  with  Khurbet  Erma,  where  are 
seen  extensive  ruins  and  a  scarped  area  whiCh  may  well  have 
been  the  place  where  the  ark  rested  those  many  years  after  it 
was  restored  by  the  Philistines  till  David  "  found  it  in  the 
wood."^  "It  is,"  says  Dr.  Geikie,^  "about  four  miles  nearly 
east  of  Bethshemesh,  but  a  thousand  feet  higher  above  the  sea. 
Approaching  it  from  the  east,  by  the  great  gorge  which,  under 
different  names,  runs  from  near  Gibeon  to  Bethshemesh,  and 
ascending  the  slopes  on  which  is  the  little  ruined  village  of 
Deir-esh-Sheikh,  you  see  the  white  bed  of  a  torrent  far  beneath, 
twisting  in  wide  bends  beneath  steep  hills,  which  rise  fully  a 
thousand  feet  above  it.  The  slopes  on  both  sides  are  stony  and 
seamed  with  outcrops  of  rock,  and  both,  but  especially  the 
southern,  are  covered  with  a  dense  brushwood  of  dwarfed  oak, 
hawthorn,  carob,  and  other  trees,  no  higher  than  well-grown 
shrubs  ;  every  vacant  space  adding  to  the  pleasantness  of  the 
view  by  a  carpet  of  thyme,  sage,  and  other  aromatic  plants- 
On  a  bold  spur  running  out  from  the  southern  slope,  and 
marked  by  a  curious  platform  of  rock  which  rises  in  the  centre, 
above  the  oHve  trees  around,  lie  the  ruins  of  Erma,  built 
up   against    scarps,  natural    or   artificial."      The  fourth    city, 

*  Robinson,  ii.  130.  =  See  "Samuel  and  Saul,"  pp.  56  f. 

3  "  The  Holy  Land  and  the  Bible,"  ii.  144. 


74  I  JOSHUA. 

Chephirah,  now  known  as  Kefireh,  lay  some  four  miles  from 
Kirjath-jearim,  and  two  east  from  the  town  of  Ajalon,  of  which 
we  shall  shortly  hear  again.  To  the  same  confederacy  belonged 
also  Shechem.  Situated  as  these  cities  were,  commanding  the 
passes  which  led  to  the  sea  coast  and  the  south,  they  formed 
a  most  important  element  in  the  conquest,  though  at  the  time 
Joshua  seems  to  have  failed  to  understand  their  position,  and 
might  have  suffered  severely  for  his  ignorance.  Providentially 
he  was  spared  from  this  danger  by  a  most  unexpected  event. 
Thoroughly  alarmed  by  the  destruction  of  Jericho  and  Ai, 
which  in  their  view  had  been  effected  by  stratagem  and  craft, 
the  burghers  resolved  to  secure  by  wily  diplomacy  that  safety 
which  they  had  no  heart  to  attempt  by  an  appeal  to  arms.  The 
petty  Canaanite  kings,  who  had  been  slow  to  realize  the  mar- 
vellous character  of  late  events,  had  now  become  alive  to  the 
danger  that  menaced  them,  and  were  combining  to  make 
common  cause  against  the  invaders.  They  invited  the  Gibeon- 
ites  to  join  their  league.  But  these  stood  aloof,  and  deter- 
mined to  make  terms  for  themselves.  They  knew  too  well  the 
fate  that  awaited  them  at  the  hands  of  the  Hebrews  ;  they  were 
quite  aware  that  a  war  of  extermination  had  been  declared 
against  the  inhabitants  of  the  land,  that  no  truce  could  be 
expected,  and  that  to  confess  themselves  Canaanites  of  the 
neighbourhood  was  to  consign  their  lives  to  destruction.  So, 
reckoning  on  the  simplicity  and  credulity  of  the  Israelites  and 
their  ignorance  of  the  natives  of  the  country,  they  sent  an 
embassy  to  Joshua,  at  Gilgal,  representing  themselves  as 
having  come  from  a  far  country,  attracted  by  the  fame  of  the 
Jewish  conquests  on  the  eastern  side  of  Jordan,  and  desirous 
of  making  a  league  with  a  people  so  plainly  under  Divine 
protection.  They  mention  especially  that  they  had  heard  of 
the  power  displayed  by  the  Lord  their  God  in  Egypt,  and  how 
the  Israelites  had  conquered  Sihon,  king  of  Heshbon,  and  Og, 
king  of  Bashan.  All  reference  to  more  recent  events,  the 
passage  of  the  Jordan,  the  destruction  of  Jericho  and  Ai,  is 
cunningly  omitted,  the  better  to  support  the  fiction  of  their 
distant  home.  Disposed  though  they  were  to  believe  in  the 
profound  and  wide  impression  made  by  the  wonders  which 
they  had  experienced,  the  Israelites  did  not  at  once  fall  into 
the  trap  prepared  for  them.  Something  in  the  appearance  or 
language  of  these  strangers  led  them  to  suspect  that  they  might 


CONQUEST  OF  THE  SOUTH.  75 

be  Canaanites.  "  Peradventure,"  said  they,  "  ye  dwell  among 
us  ;  and  how  shall  we  make  a  league  with  you  ?  "  All  such 
alliances,  indeed,  had  been  strictly  Ibrbidden  on  the  ground  of 
the  polluting  influence  of  evil  practices  and  example,  especially 
in  the  matter  of  idolatry  and  debasement  of  morals.^  The 
Gibeonites  were  prepared  for  this  difficulty,  and  on  Joshua 
asking  them  to  say  plainly  who  they  were,  and  whence  they 
came,  they  made  no  direct  answer,  but  asserted  that  they  had 
journeyed  from  a  far  distant  country  ;  and  in  proof  of  their 
statement  they  pointed  to  the  condition  of  their  garments  and 
provisions.  The  clothes  were  new  when  they  started  from 
home,  and  now  were  worn  threadbare  ;  their  sandals  had  been 
patched  again  and  again  ;  the  sacks  in  which  they  carried  their 
food  were  worn  out ;  the  leathern  skins  which  held  wine  were 
burst  with  long  use,  and  roughly  mended  ;  the  bread  which 
they  had  taken  fresh  from  the  oven  was  dry  and  mouldy.  All 
these  tokens  of  hard  travel  they  had  craftily  prepared  before- 
hand to  deceive  the  unsuspicious  Israelites.  Naturally  ambas- 
sadors would  appear  in  bright  and  festive  attire  ;  the  condition 
of  these  envoys  could  be  explained  only  on  the  plea  of  their 
having  come  straight  from  a  distant  journey.  Of  mouldy 
victuals  and  worn-out  garments  the  Hebrews  had  had  no 
experience  during  their  sojourn  in  the  wilderness  ;  they  looked 
with  wonder  on  these  foreigners,  and  accepted  their  story 
without  reserve.  That  they  could  be  the  victims  of  an  elabo- 
rate fraud  never  crossed  their  mind.  The  elders  took  of  the 
food  which  the  Gibeonites  offered,  and  thus,  in  accordance  with 
Eastern  custom,  pledged  themselves  to  peace  and  friendship. 
Without  asking  counsel  of  God,  trusting  entirely  to  his  own 
judgment,  Joshua  made  a  league  with  these  deceivers  ;  with 
culpable  carelessness  the  princes  ratified  the  alliance  by  an 
oath.  The  national  pride  was  gratified  by  the  arrival  of  this 
deputation  ;  here  was  a  tribute  to  the  reputation  and  the  power 
of  God's  chosen  people ;  the  evidence  seemed  incontestable  ; 
and  thus  the  engagement  was  rashly  made  which  had  such 
momentous  consequences. 

Three  days  passed,  and  then  the  deception  was  discovered. 

It  was  found  that  these  supposed  travellers  lived  in  cities  not 

twenty  miles  away  from  the  camp.      Determined  to  examine 

the  truth  for  himself,  Joshua  organized  an  expedition  into  the 

»  Exod.  xxiii.  32  f.  ;  xxxiv.  12.     Deut.  vii.  i  if. 


76  JOSHUA. 

hill  country,  and  soon  arrived  at  Gibeon  and  its  allied  cities. 
They  were  plainly  inhabited  by  the  hated  Canaanites,  who  by 
law  were  devoted  to  utter  destruction.  The  soldiers  were  eager 
to  execute  the  vengeance  of  which  they  believed  themselves  to 
be  the  appointed  instruments.  But  the  chieftains  restrained 
the  ardour  of  their  followers  ;  they  had  sworn  with  an  oath  to 
preserve  the  lives  of  these  Gibeonites,  and  they  could  not 
violate  the  engagement.  There  was  much  to  be  said  on  both 
sides.  The  people  argued  that  the  command  regarding  the 
extermination  of  the  Palestinians  was  simple,  severe,  and 
admitted  of  no  compromise  ;  that  immunity  had  been  obtained 
by  a  palpable  fraud,  and  was  therefore  not  to  be  observed  ;  or 
that  the  engagement,  not  having  been  made  with  the  concurrence 
of  the  whole  congregation,  was  null  and  void.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  elders  replied  that  they  had  voluntarily  sworn  by  the 
Lord  to  spare  this  people,  and  that  though  they  were  doubtless 
guilty  of  carelessness  in  making  the  promise,  they  could  not 
take  advantage  of  this  negligence  to  repudiate  the  obligation 
and  bring  disgrace  on  the  sacred  name  which  they  had  invoked. 
What  was  the  duty  in  this  conflict  of  opinions  ?  Were  they  to 
observe  the  covenant  into  which  they  had  been  unwarily 
entrapped,  or  to  act  as  if  no  such  engagement  existed  ?  It  is 
not  immoral  to  violate  a  vow  which  it  would  be  a  sin  to  keep. 
No  casuist  would  have  condemned  Herod  had  he  refused  to 
execute  John  the  Baptist  in  compliance  with  the  oath  which  he 
had  imprudently  taken.  But  was  it  a  sin  to  spare  the  Gibeonites  ? 
We  must  remember  that  the  destruction  of  the  Canaanites  was 
ordered  lest  they  should  seduce  the  Hebrews  to  idolatry.  If  in 
a  special  case  this  end  could  be  secured  without  wholesale 
annihilation,  the  stern  command  might  perhaps  be  allowed  to 
be  temporarily  suspended,  more  especially  as  its  execution 
under  present  circumstances  would  have  brought  upon  them- 
selves the  guilt  of  perjury,  and  given  occasion  to  the  heathen 
to  blaspheme  and  lightly  regard  the  name  of  Jehovah  by  which 
the  oath  had  been  taken.  The  elders  were  not  long  in  de- 
ciding their  course  of  action.  They  determined  to  stand  by 
their  oath,  and  at  the  same  time  to  place  the  Gibeonites  in  such 
a  position  that  they  would  be  unable  to  influence  others  to  evil, 
and  that  the  design  of  God  in  decreeing  their  destruction  might 
still  virtually  be  carried  out.  Accordingly  they  granted  these 
Canaanites  their  lives,  but  reduced  them  to  a  servile  condition, 


CONQUEST  OF  THE  SOUTH.  77 

made  them  "  hewers  of  wood  and  drawers  of  water  unto  all  the 
congregation."  These  menial  duties,  which  usually  fell  to  the 
lowest  classes,  they  had  henceforward  to  perform  especially 
in  the  sanctuary  and  for  the  service  of  the  priests.  Joshua 
announced  this  decision  in  stern  language  :  "  Wherefore  have 
ye  beguiled  us,  saying,  We  are  very  far  from  you;  when  ye 
dwell  among  us  .'*  Now  therefore  ye  are  cursed,  and  there  shall 
never  fail  to  be  of  you  bondmen,  both  hewers  of  wood  and 
drawers  of  water  for  the  house  of  my  God."  The  Israelites  do 
not  seem  to  have  been  influenced  by  any  idea  of  making  con- 
verts of  this  people.  They  were  very  slow  to  recognize  their 
own  missionary  character,  or  to  extend  the  privileges  of  their 
religion  to  alien  nations.  Nor  do  the  Gibeonites  appear  to 
have  been  actuated  by  any  motive  but  slavish  fear  in  making 
the  submission.  Their  assertion  of  regard  for  the  name  and 
power  of  Jehovah  was  a  hollow  pretence  ;  they  had  none  of 
the  honest  conviction  which  Rahab  displayed ;  and  their 
chicanery  and  deceit  were  justly  punished.  To  this  sentence 
the  Gibeonites  submitted  without  resistance,  and  accepting  the 
position  forced  upon  them,  seem  never  to  have  acted  treacher- 
ously or  to  have  seduced  their  masters  to  idolatry.  The 
results  showed  that  the  princes  h^id  acted  rightly.  The  com- 
pact led  to  a  great  and  notable  victory  a  few  days  later  ;  and  the 
infringement  of  the  covenant  by  Saul  was  regarded  by  God  as 
a  national  crime,  and  punished  by  a  general  famine  in  the  land- 
We  have  mentioned  that  the  Canaanite  kings  of  the  south 
were  uniting  their  forces  in  order  to  crush  the  invaders.  They 
are  described  as  those  in  the  hill  country,  in  the  lowland,  and 
the  shore  of  the  Great  Sea,  the  three  terms  applying  re- 
spectively to  the  mountainous  region  in  central  and  southern 
Palestine,  the  Shephelah,  i^.^  the  plain  between  the  hills  and 
the  coast,  and  the  sea  coast  itself  extending  from  Tyre  to 
Joppa.  The  defection  of  Gibeon,  with  its  powerful  army  and 
commanding  position,  opened  the  approaches  to  their  territory 
and  gave  the  strangers  a  hold  on  the  very  heart  of  the  country. 
The  northern  tribes,  though  equally  alarmed,  were  not  prepared 
to  take  immediate  steps,  and  were  indeed  completely  iso- 
lated from  the  southern  confederacy  by  Joshua's  strategical 
manoeuvre.  Six  of  the  seven  nations  of  Canaan  are  named 
as  joining  in  the  league,  the  Girgashites  being  omitted,  probably 
as  being  cut  off  by  their  position  from  effecting  a  junction  with 


78  JOSHUA. 

their  southern  brethren.  We  have  no  criteria  by  which  to 
judge  of  the  number  of  the  troops  actually  engaged  in  the 
conflict.  The  tribes  located  in  the  mountains  doubtless  sent 
all  their  available  strength,  while  those  at  a  distance  forwarded 
powerful  contingents  ;  but  there  was  little  coherence  in  the  army 
thus  collected,  and  its  military  organization  was  very  defective. 
The  tribe  which  is  mentioned  as  especially  engaged  in  the 
present  conflict  is  called  loosely  that  of  the  Amorites,  led  by 
Adoni-zedec,  king  of  Jerusalem,  and  supported  by  the  kings  of 
Hebron,  Jarmuth,  Lachish,  and  Eglon.  The  appellation  of  the 
king  of  Jerusalem  signifies  "  Lord  of  righteousness,"  and  re- 
calls the  monarch  of  Abraham's  day,  Melchizedek,  "  king  of 
righteousness."  Such  was  probably  the  official  title  of  the  king 
of  Jerusalem,  though  doubtless,  on  a  change  of  dynasties,  the 
name  had  long  ago  lost  its  appositeness,  and  could  not  be 
appropriately  applied  to  the  idolatrous  heathen  who  bore  it. 
There  seems  no  reason  to  doubt  that  the  city  so  named  is  to  all 
intents  the  Jerusalem  of  sacred  history.  The  word  in  Hebrew, 
Jerushalaim,  is  of  dual  form,  implying  an  aggregation,  or,  as  we 
may  say,  an  upper  and  a  lower  city.  There  are  numerous 
similar  plural  names  of  cities  in  Scripture,  and  every  one  is 
familiar  with  classical  instances,  as  Thebae,  Athense,  Mycenae. 
This  city  also  bore  the  name  of  Jebus,  and  its  inhabitants  were 
called  Jebusites,  and  retained  possession  of  the  place  up  to  the 
time  of  David.  This  uninterrupted  occupancy  was  attributable 
to  its  strong  position,  which  Hebrew  skill  could  not  force  ;  nor 
do  we  read  of  any  attempt  made  by  Joshua  to  effect  its  capture 
when  he  so  rapidly  and  easily  subdued  the  other  allied  towns. 
Of  three  of  the  remaining  cities  we  shall  hear  again  shortly^ 
but  of  one  of  them^  Jarmuth,  very  little  is  said.  It  is  mentioned 
among  the  cities  of  Judah  in  chap,  xv.,  and  in  Nehemiah  xi., 
but  occurs  nowhere  else  in  the  pages  of  Scripture^  save  in  con- 
nection with  the  circumstances  of  this  league.  It  has  been  iden- 
tified with  the  village  of  Yarmuk,  which  stands  on  the  crest  of 
a  rugged  hill  about  eight  miles  north-east  of  Eleutheropolis, 
and,  as  Dr.  Porter  says,  in  the  hewn  stones  and  ruins  that  mark 
the  site  gives  token  of  past  strength  and  greatness.'  These 
five  kings  determined  to  make  a  combined  effort  to  punish 
Gibeon  for  its  treachery,  and  to  recover  a  position  of  such  vast 
strategic  importance.  They  do  not  venture  to  attack  Joshua, 
*  Kitto»  "Cyclop."  ;  Robinson,  ii.  344. 


CONQUEST  OF  THE  SOUTH. 


79 


of  whose  divinely-protected  power  they  stood  in  great  awe,  but 
they  hope  to  be  able  to  cut  off  the  revolting  city,  and  thus 
deprive  him   of   a  formidable   ally.     Gathering    their    forces 
together,  they  suddenly  marched  upon  Gibeon  and  "  made  war 
against  it."     The  Gibeonites  hardly  realized  the  details  of  the 
confederacy  which  was  gathered  for  their  destruction  ;  in  their 
alarm  they  stop  not  to  examine  accurately  the  quarter  whence 
the  storm  burst  upon  them  ;  their  only  hope  of  safety  lies  in 
immediate  succour  at  the  hands  of  Joshua.     They  send   an 
urgent  message  to  the  camp  at  Gilgal,  stating  that  all  the  kings 
of  the  Amorites  that  dwell  in  the  mountains  were  gathered 
against  them,  though  in  reality  the  hostile  forces  were  chiefly 
inhabitants  of  the  lowlands  —  fear  making  them   blind   and 
inaccurate  ;  and  with  pressing  importunity  they  add :  "  Slack 
not  thy  hand  from  thy  servants  ;  come  up  to  us  quickly,  and 
save  us,  and  help  us."    The  crisis  was  urgent.     Joshua  saw  at 
once  that   celerity  was   of   the   utmost    importance.      Not    a 
moment  did  he  hesitate.     Secure  in  the  protection  of  heaven, 
(for  he  had  had  an  assurance  that  the  Lord  was  with  him  and 
would  give  him  victory),  he  selected  the  most  valiant  of  his 
soldiers,  and  set  out  with  a  brave  heart  to  encounter  the  largest 
body  of  the  enemy  that  he  had  yet  engaged.     The  distance 
from  Gilgal  to  Gibeon  was  some  fifteen  miles  ;  marching  all 
night  up  the  Wady  Kelt,  and  through  the  Wady  Suweinit,  he 
arrived  in  the  early  morning  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  city 
before  the  Amorites  were  aware  that  he  had  quitted  his  camp. 
The  battle  that  ensued  has  been  called  one  of  the  decisive 
battles  of  the  world.     Stanley  '  compares  it  with  '*  the  battle  of 
the  Milvian  Bridge,  which  involved  the  fall  of  Paganism  ;  the 
battle  of  Poitiers,  which  sealed  the  fall  of  Arianism  ;  the  battle 
of  Bedr,  which  secured  the  rise  of  Mahometanism  in  Asia  ;  the 
battle  of  Tours,  which  checked  the  spread  of  Mahometanism 
in  Western  Europe  ;  the  battle  of  Lepanto,  which  checked  it  in 
Eastern  Europe  ;  the  battle  of  Lutzen,  which  determined  the 
balance   of  power  between   Roman    Catholicism  and    Protes- 
tantism in  Germany."     Deploying  suddenly  from  the  defile  into 
the  more  open  ground  in  front  of  Gibeon,  the  Israelites  struck 
the  Amorites  with  dismay.     Such  prompt  action  was  quite  un- 
expected ;  the  remembrance  of  the  terrible  massacres  of  Jericho 
and  Ai  was   present   to  their  minds;   the  bearing  of  these 
'  "Jewish  Church,"  lect.  xi. 


8o   .  JOSHUA. 

Strangers  was  bold,  as  if  assured  of  victory  ;  and  as  they 
shouted  their  confident  war-cry,  "God  is  mighty  in  battle  : 
God  is  His  name,"  the  Amorites  were  stricken  with  panic, 
and  offered  but  slight  resistance  to  the  furious  attack  of  the 
Hebrews.  They  were  completely  discomfited,  and  fled  in  con- 
fusion through  the  defiles  trending  westward,  on  the  hilly  road 
broken  by  many  a  steep  ascent  and  descent  that  led  to  Beth- 
horon,  some  five  or  six  miles  distant.  The  name  Beth-horon 
means  "  house  of  caves."  There  were  two  places  so  called,  an 
Upper  and  a  Lower  Beth-horon,  the  latter  lying  seven  hundred 
feet  lower  than  the  other  at  two  miles'  distance.  The  sites  have 
been  easily  identified  by  the  unalterable  features  of  the  country, 
and  the  very  names  have  remained  unchanged  in  these  three  or 
four  thousand  years,  the  Upper  being  now  known  as  Beit  Ur  el 
Foka,  the  Lower  as  Beit  Ur  el  Tachta.  While  part  of  the 
defeated  forces  fled  to  Beth-horon,  another  portion  hurried 
down  the  Wady  Surar  or  Sorek  to  their  fortified  cities,  which 
lay  to  the  south  and  west.  The  interest  of  the  narrative  is 
concentrated  on  the  former  of  the  two  bodies  of  fugitives. 
These  reached  the  head  of  the  pass  of  Upper  Beth-horon 
before  their  pursuers,  and,  surmounting  the  height,  set  off  down 
the  slope  that  led  to  the  Lower  village.  This  was  a  most 
rugged  and  difficult  descent,  encumbered  with  loose  stones 
and  outstanding  rocks,  and  in  some  places  so  steep  that  steps 
have  been  rudely  cut  to  facilitate  progress.  As  the  discomfited 
enemy  flung  themselves  down  this  precipitous  pass,  another 
disaster  befell  them.  One  of  those  furious  storms  of  hail, 
accompanied  with  lightning,  which  at  times  sweep  over  the 
hills  of  Palestine,  burst  upon  the  flying  troops.  Hailstones  of 
enormous  size  fell  from  heaven,  and  caused  wide  destruction,  so 
that  the  narrator  could  say  :  "  They  were  more  which  died  with 
the  hailstones,  than  they  whom  the  children  of  Israel  slew  with 
the  sword."  Such  an  occurrence  is  no  exaggeration.  We  have 
seen  in  our  own  country,  and  only  a  few  years  ago,  hailstones 
of  great  size  ;  in  tropical  climates  the  fall  of  masses  of  ice  of  a 
pound  or  more  in  weight  is  not  uncommon,  and  these  would 
naturally  disable  or  kill  any  men  or  animals  which  they  might 
strike.  Kitto  '  mentions  a  storm  at  Constantinople  in  1831, 
when  the  hail  was  such  that  roofs  were  beaten  in,  trees  stripped 
and  broken,  and  many  persons  slain,  and  much  cattle  killed. 
*  "  Bible  Illustrations,"  ii.  293. 


CONQUEST  OF  THE  SOUTH.  8l 

The  fact  concerned  with  the  story  of  *'  The  Thundering 
Legion,"  however  adorned  by  ecclesiastical  tradition,  remains 
irrefragable,  viz.,  that  the  Roman  army  was  delivered  from  a 
most  critical  position  by  a  sudden  storm,  which  supplied  them 
with  the  water  for  which  they  were  thirsting,  and  discomfited 
their  barbarian  opponents.  Such  a  tempest  completed  the  rout 
of  the  Austrians  at  the  battle  of  Solferino  in  1859.  The  provi- 
dential occurrence  of  this  hailstorm  in  the  pass  of  Beth-horon, 
while  it  encouraged  the  Israelites  in  their  belief  that  the  Lord 
interposed  in  their  behalf,  increased  the  panic  of  the  Amorites, 
and  confirmed  their  conviction  of  the  impossibility  of  contend- 
ing successfully  against  a  people  so  manifestly  protected  by 
heavenly  powers.  When  he  arrived  at  the  head  of  the  pass, 
Joshua  paused  a  few  minutes  to  examine  the  scene  and  to  rest 
his  panting  followers.  Behind  him  rose  the  lofty  hills  which 
concealed  Gibeon  from  his  view,  while  over  them  the  sun  shone 
with  all  its  power  high  in  the  heavens  ;  before  him  the  prospect 
extended  over  the  rounded  hills  beneath,  over  the  broad  plain  of 
Ajalon  at  the  further  extremity  of  the  defile,  and  to  the  blue 
waters  of  the  sea  in  the  far  distance,  a  rift  in  the  clouds  show- 
ing the  pale  disc  of  the  moon  in  the  western  sky.  But  below 
he  looked  on  the  discomfited  enemy,  rushing  tumultuously  down 
the  steep  track,  thrown  into  the  wildest  confusion,  and  suffering 
all  the  horrors  of  a  tropical  storm  of  abnormal  violence.  Here 
was  victory  in  his  grasp,  if  only  he  could  seize  it.  Would  day- 
light last  long  enough,  he  could  annihilate  the  Amorites  ere 
they  reached  a  refuge  in  the  plain.  The  great  exertions  which 
he  had  made  would  surely  not  be  rendered  useless  by  the 
approach  of  night.  Forbid  it,  Lord  !  The  wish  of  his  heart 
found  expression  in  words  preserved  in  the  Book  of  Jasher,  to 
which  we  are  indebted  also  for  David's  elegy  over  Saul  and 
Jonathan.^  The  following  is  the  quotation,  partly  prose,  partly 
poetry :  "  Then  spake  Joshua  to  Jehovah  in  the  day  when 
Jehovah  delivered  up  the  Amorite  before  the  sons  of  Israel ; 
and  he  said  before  the  eyes  of  Israel — 

"  Sun,  be  still  [silent]  upon  Gibeon, 
And,  Moon,  in  the  valley  of  Ajalon  ! 
And  the  sun  was  still,  and  the  moon  stayed, 
Until  the  nation  was  avenged  of  its  enemies. 


2  Sam.  i.  18  ff. 
7 


82  JOSHUA. 

Is  not  this  written  in  the  Book  of  Jasher?  And  the  sun  stood 
in  the  midst  of  heaven,  and  hasted  not  to  go  down  about  a 
whole  day.  And  there  was  no  day  like  that  before  and  after  it, 
that  Jehovah  hearkened  unto  the  voice  of  a  man  ;  for  Jehovah 
fought  for  Israel."  '  The  rhythmical  portion  of  the  quotation 
is  doubtless  taken  from  the  Book  of  Jasher  ;  the  prose  part  is 
cited  from  another  account  which  comments  on  the  former,  and 
has  been  here  inserted  by  an  editor  who  took  the  popular  view 
of  the  transaction.  The  apparent  meaning  of  this  paragraph 
is  that  the  day  was  miraculously  prolonged  in  order  to  give  the 
Israelites  time  to  complete  the  destruction  of  the  Canaanites 
before  the  darkness  of  night  should  put  a  stop  to  their  opera- 
tions. This  seems  to  be  simply  the  statement  in  the  text ;  and 
it  is  met  by  many  objections,  not  only  on  the  part  of  sceptics 
who  disbelieve  in  the  miraculous,  but  also  on  the  part  of 
behevers  who  find  insuperable  difficulties  in  regarding  the 
occurrence  as  strictly  historical.  It  is  considered  as  a  great 
waste  of  power  to  work  so  tremendous  a  miracle  for  so  small  a 
result  as  the  destruction  of  this  insignificant  body  of  men. 
The  Bible,  speaking  the  language  of  common  life,  not  of  scien- 
tific accuracy,  must  mean  by  the  staying  of  the  sun  that  the 
diurnal  motion  of  the  earth  was  suddenly  arrested.  To  prevent 
the  appalling  consequences  of  such  an  occurrence  many  more 
miracles  must  have  been  needed.  Was  the  occasion  such  as  to 
warrant  them  ?  We  may  say  at  once  that  if  the  necessity  for 
such  a  miracle  is  granted,  the  details  are  comparatively  unim- 
portant. If  God,  for  wise  purposes,  thought  fit  to  suspend  or 
control  the  laws  of  the  universe  in  this  special  instance,  He  would 
also  control  the  consequences  which  would  otherwise  naturally 
result  from  such  interference.  And  it  may  be  said  that  a 
miracle  at  this  crisis  was  demanded  and  was  to  be  expected. 
It  was  imperative  that  the  league  of  the  Canaanite  kings 
should  be  broken  up  and  their  power  destroyed  ;  it  was  also 
imperative  that  this  destruction  should  be  effected  on  this 
day ;  if  a  miracle  was  needed  to  bring  about  this  result,  He 
who  had  already  worked  so  many  wonders  for  Israel,  He  who 
had  shown  that  all  nature  is  subservient  to  the  scheme  of 
redemption,  might  well  miraculously  prolong  this  day  to  facili- 
tate the  accomplishment  of  His  purpose.     Persons  may  think 

^  The  concluding  paragraph,  ver,  15,  "And  Joshua  returned,"  &c.,  is 
part  of  the  quotation  from  Jasher,  the  intermediate  events  being  omitted. 


CONQUEST  OF  THE  SOUTH.  83 

that  this  stopping  of  the  earth's  rotation  (which  is  the  virtual 
explanation  of  the  miracle)  was  an  unnecessary  display  of 
Almighty  power,  that  victory  might  have  been  given  by  other 
and  simpler  means,  that  the  occasion  did  not  warrant  such  an 
exaggerated  effort  of  Omnipotence  ;  but  we  are  not  competent 
judges  of  the  acts  and  determinations  of  God  ;  there  are  no 
degrees  of  difficulty  with  Him  ;  one  method  is  as  easy  with 
Him  as  another.  If  He  answered  Joshua's  prayer  to  the  letter, 
it  was  because  such  an  intervention  was  best  calculated  to  effect 
the  intended  result,  and  to  demonstrate  to  heathens  and  believers 
alike  that  the  battle  was  the  Lord's,  and  that  man's  destiny  was 
wholly  in  His  hands.  The  inspired  leader  of  Israel  might  well 
have  expected  to  receive  the  supernatural  aid  in  his  present 
undertaking  which  he  had  experienced  on  former  occasions. 
It  was  necessary  to  strike  terror  into  the  heathen  nations 
around,  and  to  show  that  the  very  gods  whom  they  wor- 
shipped were  powerless  before  the  Lord  of  the  Israelites. 
Thus  such  a  miraculous  interference  as  that  supposed  would 
have  a  strong  moral  effect  upon  both  belligerents,  encouraging 
the  one  and  terrifying  the  other.  Besides  this,  on  this  conflict 
hung  momentous  issues.  It  was  no  mere  engagement  of  petty 
tribes  struggling  for  the  possession  of  a  remote  corner  of  an 
insignificant  country  ;  Israel  was  fighting  for  truth,  morality, 
religion,  progress,  against  error,  licentiousness,  idolatry,  bar- 
barism ;  the  future  of  man  was  concerned  in  this  battle  of 
Beth-horon.  Were  piety  and  purity  to  win  the  day,  or  blas- 
phemy and  depravity  ?  Was  the  grand  truth  of  Monotheism 
to  be  triumphantly  vindicated,  or  Polytheism  with  its  un- 
speakable pollutions  to  be  victorious  ?  Here,  if  ever,  would 
God  bare  His  arm  ;  here,  if  man's  necessity  needed  miraculous 
aid,  would  such  intervention  be  vouchsafed.  If  in  Israel  all 
nations  should  be  blessed,  and  its  very  existence  was  imperilled 
by  the  present  contingency,  a  miracle  might  be  expected  to 
occur,  in  order  to  obviate  the  latter  danger,  and  to  heip  for- 
ward the  designed  result.  Thus  there  is  no  antecedent 
improbability  in  the  record  of  the  miracle  as  usually  under- 
stood ;  there  was  reason  for  Divine  interposition,  if  the  natural 
order  of  things  would  have  failed  to  accomplish  the  purpose. 
We  might  be  content  to  leave  the  matter  here,  acquiescing 
in  the  literal  statement  of  the  wonder,  and  waiting  patiently 
for  its  further  elucidation.     But  scoffers  and  unbelievers  have 


84  JOSHUA. 

made  so  much  of  the  difficulties  connected  with  the  occurrence 
that  a  few  more  words  are  necessary.  We  may  take  Kenan's  * 
version  of  the  story  as  the  best  example  of  the  modern  gloss  : 
"  The  Israelite  army  marched  in  a  body  to  force  the  five  kings 
to  raise  the  siege  of  Gibeon.  A  panic  seized  on  the  Canaanite 
army  ;  it  fled  towards  Bethoran  as  far  as  Maggeda.  Joshua 
pursued  it,  cut  it  in  pieces,  killed,  it  is  said,  the  five  kings 
and  crucified  them.  A  popular  song  (preserved  in  the  lasher) 
celebrated  this  victory ;  in  it  were  found  these  two  lines  : 

"  '  Sun,  stand  thou  still  upon  Gibeon, 

And  thou,  Moon,  in  the  valley  of  Ajalon.' 

The  poet  wished  to  express  the  astonishment  of  nature  at  the 
prodigious  efforts  of  the  Israelites.  This  rhetorical  figure 
afterwards  gave  rise  to  some  curious  mistakes.  The  two  lines 
were  placed  in  the  mouth  of  Joshua,  and  in  changing  the 
meaning  of  the  word,  which  signifies  '  stood  still  with  astonish- 
ment,'it  was  supposed  that  the  sun  really  stood  still  at  the  order 
of  Joshua."  Thus  the  miracle  is  eliminated  from  the  narrative. 
There  are  two  questions  here  which  may  well  be  asked  even  by 
believers  in  the  supernatural  :  Was  the  supposed  miracle  abso- 
lutely necessary?  And  do  the  words  of  the  account  in  Scripture 
compel  us  to  maintain  the  literal  meaning  of  the  passage  and 
no  other  ?  Now  God  never  varies  what  we  have  learned  to  call 
the  laws  of  nature  without  sufficient  cause  ;  in  certain  cases  He 
interposes  His  will,  as  a  man  may  arrest  the  attraction  of 
gravity  by  superior  force  ;  but  this  He  does  only  when  He  sees 
that  the  ordinary  course  of  things  will  not  effect  His  purpose. 
Miracles  are  supplied  only  where  they  are  needed  by  the  weak- 
ness of  the  recipient  or  the  inability  of  the  ordinary  agent. 
Granted  that  longer  dayhght  was  needed  to  enable  the  Hebrews 
to  make  their  victory  complete,  this  result  might  have  been 
obtained  by  something  short  of  the  tremendous  wonder 
narrated  by  the  compiler.  An  extraordinary  refraction  of  the 
sunlight — a  parhelion,  or  some  similar  natural  phenomenon 
— might  have  produced  the  desired  prolongation.  There  was 
no  necessity  for  any  great  extension  of  the  day.  An  hour  or 
two  more  was  all  that  was  needed.  After  the  night  march,  and 
the  morning  fight,  and  the  rapid  pursuit  up  the  difficult  pass, 
the  Israelites  must  have  found  themselves  quite  exhausted  at 
»   "  History  of  the  People  of  Israel,"  p.  204,  Eng.  Translation. 


CONQUEST  OF  THE  SOUTH.  85 

the  end  of  an  ordinary  day  ;  human  nature  could  not  have 
endured  another  twelve  hours  of  such  violent  exertions,  and  it 
would  have  required  a  fresh  miracle  to  enable  them  to  take 
advantage  of  the  added  time.  But  are  we  bound  to  regard  the 
account  in  sober  earnest  as  the  statement  of  a  fact  in  history  ? 
Or  have  we  grounds  for  supposing  that  Eastern  hyperbole  and 
poetic  adornment  have  modified  the  simple  truth  ? 

If  the  miracle  is  plainly  related  in  the  Book  of  Joshua,  it 
would  surely  have  been  referred  to  by  succeeding  writers  ;  it 
would  have  entered  into  the  strains  of  Psalmists  and  Prophets, 
as  the  wonders  of  the  Exodus  are  sung  ;  it  would  have  been 
enumerated  by  the  writer  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  among 
the  mighty  deeds  of  Joshua  and  the  Judges  ;  it  would  have 
appeared  in  Isaiah's  prophecy  when  he  spoke  of  the  battle  of 
Gibeon  ; '  but  there  is  no  allusion  whatever  to  it  in  all  canonical 
Scripture.  The  passage  in  Habakkuk  iii.  11,  which  has  been 
supposed  to  bear  upon  it,  has  really  nothing  to  do  with  it.  The 
words  are  translated  in  our  version  :  "  The  sun  and  moon  stood 
still  in  their  habitation  ";  but  the  expression  means,  "withdraw 
into  their  habitation,"  /.<?.,  retire  in  fear  and  horror,  and  is  part 
of  a  general  description  of  the  effects  of  the  great  Theophany. 
The  miracle  is  mentioned  only  in  the  Apocrypha,  the  writer  of 
Ecclesiasticus  speaking  of  it  thus  :  "  Did  not  the  sun  go  back 
by  his  means  ?  And  was  not  one  day  as  long  as  two  ?  "  (Ecclus. 
xlvi.  4).  The  son  of  Sirach  has  altered  the  tradition  which  was 
given  in  the  Book  of  Jasher,  and  represents  the  sun  as  going 
back  instead  of  standing  still.  This  shows  that  the  story  was 
handed  down  vaguely,  and  was  not  based  on  a  definite  state- 
ment in  inspired  Scripture.  Josephus'  account  is  the  follow- 
ing :  ^  "  There  also  Joshua  understood  that  God  was  present  to 
help  him,  signifying  His  aid  by  thunders  and  lightning,  and 
showers  of  hailstones  greater  than  usual.  Besides  these  things 
the  day  was  lengthened,  lest  the  courage  of  the  Hebrews  should 
be  restrained  by  the  approach  of  night.  .  .  .  Now  that  the 
length  of  the  day  was  increased  at  that  time,  and  prolonged 
beyond  its  customary  measure,  is  made  evident  by  the  docu- 
ments laid  up  in  the  temple."  The  wonder  here  is  minimized, 
and  the  bare  fact  stated  that  on  this  occasion  the  day  was 
lengthened  ;  the  means  and  the  mode  are  entirely  omitted  ; 
nor  can  it  be  proved  that  the  Jewish  writer  had  before  him  the 
'  Heb.  xi.  30  if.  ;  Isa.  xxviii.  21,  '  "  Ant."  v.  i.  17. 


86  JOSHUA. 

same  text  which  is  found  in  our  Hebrew  Bible.  The  reference 
to  the  documents  kept  in  the  temple  is  calculated  to  impress 
the  minds  of  those  for  whose  edification  Josephus  wrote  his 
histories,  but  it  was  impossible  for  them  to  verify  the  allusion, 
as  it  is  for  us  in  these  days.  A  retardation  of  the  earth's 
diurnal  motion  would  have  disarranged  the  astronomical  cal- 
culations of  observers  in  every  part  of  the  world  ;  but  no  record 
of  any  such  disturbance  has  been  found.  So  if  one  should 
argue  that  the  miracle  did  not  take  place  in  the  manner  stated 
by  the  present  text,  he  could  not  be  refuted  by  any  evidence  at 
present  available.  Curiously  enough,  the  annals  of  Assurbanipal 
afford  a  parallel  miracle,  which,  as  asserted  to  be  caused  by  a 
heathen  god  and  in  furtherance  of  the  action  of  a  bloody 
despot,  we  must  regard  as  fictitious.  The  words  of  the  docu- 
ment are  thus  translated  by  Mr.  George  Smith  :^  "The  dark- 
ness of  the  morning  watch  he  caused  to  retard  the  rising  sun  ; 
and  like  this  also  three  days  he  caused  to  retard  ;  to  the  end 
that  the  King  of  Elam  shall  be  destroyed."  ...  If  this  sober 
inscription  is  exaggeration  or  poetic  imagery,  why  should  not 
the  extract  from  the  Book  of  Jasher  and  the  comment  thereon 
be  regarded  as  the  poetical  and  rhetorical  setting  of  some  more 
simple  occurrence?  It  may  be  that  Joshua  never  did  utter  the 
apostrophe  put  into  his  mouth  by  the  bard  who  sung  of  his 
prowess  ;  the  narrator  or  a  later  editor  inserted  the  extract  in 
his  account  ;  a  glosser,  rightly  imbued  with  the  truth  that 
miraculous  intervention  was  to  be  expected  in  this  conjuncture, 
added  the  prose  comment  in  the  margin,  which  in  the  course  of 
time  crept  into  the  text.  Looking  to  the  marvellous  results  of 
the  victory,  and  the  superhuman  exertions  by  which  it  was 
achieved,  the  Israelites  may  well  have  regarded  the  events  of 
that  one  day  as  equivalent  to  the  work  of  two,  and  thus  in 
course  of  time  it  came  to  be  believed  in  current  tradition  that 
the  day  was  prolonged  to  twice  its  usual  length,  though  Scrip- 
ture itself  nowhere  supported  the  statement.  The  simple  fact 
may  have  been  that,  seeing  the  tempest  driving  up  from  the 
sea,  and  fearing  the  premature  darkness  which  might  put  a  stop 
to  the  pursuit,  Joshua  prayed  that  the  daylight  would  last  till  the 
destruction  of  the  enemy  was  complete.  The  prayer  may  have 
been  answered  in  some  natural  way,  by  the  dispersion  of  the 
storm,  and  the  continuation  of  the  light,  and  the  pursuit  thus  not 
'  "  Records  of  the  Past,"  ix.  50. 


CONQUEST  OF  THE  SOUTH.  87 

checked  till  the  slaughter  was  effected.  Commentators  have 
gathered  parallel  utterances  from  classical  writings,  which  show 
that  the  idea  was  a  not  uncommon  one.  Thus  Homer  makes 
Athena  keep  the  night  tarrying  at  its  western  limit,  and  hold 
back  the  golden-throned  dawn  at  the  eastern  edge  of  ocean, 
lest  morning  should  find  Odysseus  and  Penelope  weeping  still. 
So  Agamemnon  prays  that  the  day  will  last  till  he  has  over- 
thrown the  house  of  Priam.^  We  may  add  another  solution  of 
the  command  which  has  been  proposed.  It  has  been  thought 
that  Joshua  prayed  for  a  prolongation  not  of  the  light,  but  of 
the  darkness.  The  Amorites,  already  disheartened  by  the 
storm  and  the  obscuration  of  the  sun,  whom  they  worshipped 
as  a  god,  would  be  still  further  dismayed  by  the  continuation 
of  the  darkness,  which  even  the  moon  was  not  to  illumine. 
Against  this  view,  which  perhaps  the  language  may  be  con- 
sidered to  support,  there  is  the  objection  that  the  tempest 
would  have  interfered  with  the  pursuit ;  and  we  are  nowhere 
led  to  suppose  that  the  Israelites  stood  still  while  the  hailstones 
did  their  work  for  them.  Divine  aid  waits  upon  human  exer- 
tion, but  does  not  relieve  from  the  necessity  thereof. 

To  return  from  this  digression,  which  was  rendered  necessary 
by  the  controversies  which  have  arisen  respecting  the  miracle. 
Profiting  by  the  daylight  as  the  tempest  cleared  away,  Joshua 
followed  the  flying  Amorites  down  the  pass  to  Lower  Beth- 
horon.  Arms  and  accoutrements  and  apparel  strewed  the  way, 
while  numerous  corpses,  battered  and  bruised,  attested  the 
irresistible  power  of  the  hailstorm  which  had  fallen  on  the 
fugitives.  At  the  lower  end  of  the  defile,  where  it  opened  on 
the  plain  country,  lay  the  two  towns  Azekah  and  Makkedah. 
To  these,  as  places  of  refuge,  the  defeated  Amorites  hurried  in 
headlong  confusion.  The  former  is  known  better  by  name  than 
by  position.  We  hear  of  it  in  connection  with  the  episode  of 
David  and  Goliath,  when  the  Philistines  encamped  between  it 
and  Shochoh,  which  is  the  modern  Shuweikeh,  situated  on  the 
south  slopes  of  the  Wady  es  Sunt  (the  *"  Valley  of  Acacias  "), 
at  its  eastern  end.  It  is  mentioned  again  as  fortified  by 
Rehoboam,  and  of  sufficient  importance  to  be  besieged  by 
Nebuchadnezzar.  After  the  captivity  it  was  restored  and 
occupied  ;  but  up  to  the  present  time  its  site  has  not  been 
identified.  Makkedah  has  been  fixed  by  the  Palestine  sur- 
»  Horn.  "  Od."  xxiii.  241  ff.  ;   "  11."  ii.  412  ff.  ;  xviii.  239  f. 


88  JOSHUA. 

veyors  at  El  Mughar,  some  ruins  on  the  north  side  of  the  great 
Wady  Surar,  which  runs  from  the  hill  country  of  Judasa  to  the 
sea-coast  a  few  miles  below  Ekron.  The  ground  for  this 
identification  consists  in  the  opinion  that  here  alone  in  the 
Philistine  plain  are  any  caves  found.  But  a  limestone  country 
is  always  full  of  caves,  and  it  is  evident  that  the  explorers 
cannot  know  for  certain  that  none  exist  in  places  not  visited  by 
ihem.  The  place  is  at  least  twenty-five  miles  from  Gibeon. 
Porter,  with  greater  probability,  identifies  it  with  a  ruined 
village  now  called  El  Klediah,  situated  on  the  northern  slope 
of  the  Wady  es  Sunt,  eight  miles  north-east  of  Eleutheropolis, 
and  quite  twenty  from  Beth-horon.  In  either  case  it  must 
indeed  have  been  a  wonderful  day's  work  to  follow  the  fugitive 
host  to  its  refuge,  and  there  to  complete  its  destruction.  The 
five  kings  kept  together  in  this  disastrous  rout,  and,  thoroughly 
dispirited  and  spent  with  fatigue,  on  arriving  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Makkedahjthey  turned  aside  and  concealed  themselves 
in  the  well-known  cave,  amid  a  grove  of  trees,  near  the  town. 
Informed  of  this,  Joshua  wasted  no  time  upon  them,  but  posted 
a  body  of  men  to  turn  their  asylum  into  a  prison  by  rolHng 
great  stones  to  its  entrance  and  guarding  the  place.  Here  he 
himself  remained  and  pitched  his  camp,  but  ordered  the 
picked  troops  to  continue  the  pursuit,  that  he  might  cut  off  the 
stragglers  before  they  made  good  their  escape  to  the  fortified 
cities  of  their  friends.  This  in  a  great  measure  he  succeeded 
in  doing.  Few  of  that  confederate  host  found  the  safety  which 
they  sought.  The  Lord  had  delivered  them  into  the  Israelites' 
hands,  and  they  were  slain  with  a  very  great  slaughter.  Re- 
turning at  length,  after  a  day  or  two,  from  the  pursuit  to 
Makkedah,  the  wearied  army  found  the  conqueror  encamped  in 
the  vicinity  of  the  cave  where  the  kings  had  concealed  them- 
selves. The  victory  had  cost  the  Israelites  but  few  lives  ;  safe 
and  sound  they  reached  their  new  quarters  ;  ^  a  great  awe  had 
fallen  upon  the  heathen  ;  no  one  offered  to  attack  them  ;  in  the 
proverbial  language  of  the  time  it  is  said,  "None  moved  his 
tongue  against  any  of  the  children  of  Israel."  An  act  of  justice 
remained  to  be  done,  and  it  was  executed  with  much  solemnity. 
The  army  was  gathered  round  the  mouth  of  the  cave  in  a  huge 
circle  ;  the  stones  were  rolled  away,  and  the  five  kings,  travel- 

^  Josh.  X.  21  :  "  Reversus  est  omnis  exercitus  ad  Josue  in  Maceda,  ubi 
tunc  eiant  castra,  sani  et  inlegro  nuniero.  "     Vulg. 


CONQUEST  OF  THE  SOUTH.  89 

Stained,  downcast,  stripped  of  their  royal  trappings,  were 
brought  forth  from  their  hiding-place.  They  prostrated  them- 
selves, or  were  forced  to  the  earth,  before  the  conqueror  ;  then 
Joshua  called  on  the  brave  officers  who  had  been  engaged  in 
the  battle  to  come  near  and  place  their  feet  on  the  necks  of  the 
grovelling  kings.  This  emblematic  action  was  designed  not 
merely  for  the  humiliation  of  the  defeated  enemy,  and  for  an 
exhibition  of  their  complete  subjection  to  the  victors  ;  it  was 
no  arrogant  triumph  on  Joshua's  part,  such  as  we  see  depicted 
on  Assyrian  and  Egyptian  monuments,  or  such  as  was  practised 
by  Byzantine  emperors  even  in  late  Christian  times.  He  was 
not,  in  the  Psalmist's  language,  making  his  enemies  his  foot- 
stool. He  assumes  no  personal  superiority,  but  directs  his 
officers  to  employ  the  symbolical  act  in  order  to  encourage 
them  in  the  contest  in  which  they  were  engaged,  and  to  inspirit 
the  people  generally  to  believe  in  the  goodness  of  their  cause 
and  its  certain  success.  He  addresses  them  in  words  which,  as 
applied  to  himself,  had  sunk  into  his  own  heart  :  "  Fear  not,  nor 
be  dismayed,  be  strong  and  of  good  courage  ;  for  thus  shall  the 
Lord  do  to  all  your  enemies  against  whom  ye  fight.''  Repug- 
nant as  it  would  be  to  our  views  and  habits  thus  to  exult  over  a 
fallen  foe,  we  must  not  disregard  the  motives  of  Joshua  in  this 
public  humiliation,  or  make  more  of  it  than  it  deserves. 
Gentleness  and  consideration  in  the  treatment  of  enemies 
were  unknown  and  never  expected  ;  if  humanity  was  shown,  it 
was  an  instance  of  graciousness  far  in  advance  of  the  age,  and 
was  abnormal  both  in  its  cause  and  operation.  In  the  present 
case  there  was  no  studied  cruelty  in  the  exhibition.  The  usual 
mark  of  subjection  was  enforced  in  such  a  mode  as  to  give  to  it 
a  new  and  significant  meaning,  and  impress  a  necessary  lesson 
on  the  army  and  the  people.  After  this  symbolical  ceremony 
had  been  witnessed  by  the  assembled  congregation,  Joshua  with 
his  own  hands  put  the  five  kings  to  death,  and  then  had  their 
dead  bodies  hung  on  trees  or  crosses  as  an  aggravation  of  their 
punishment,  for  one  thus  suspended  was  considered  accursed. 
Thus  he  had  treated  the  king  of  Ai.  The  corpses  hung  all  that 
day  in  the  sight  of  Israel,  reminding  them  of  the  great  victory 
lately  won,  and  inspiring  them  with  confidence  in  the  future  ; 
and  at  eventide,  as  the  law  in  Deuteronomy  '  enjoined,  in  order 

*  Deut.  xxi.  23.    The  special  command  occurs  nowhere  else  in  the  Penta- 
teuch- hence  a  presumption  that  Deuteronomy  was  well  known  to  Joshua. 


90  JOSHUA. 

that  the  land  should  not  be  defiled  by  the  longer  presence  of 
that  which  was  accursed,  they  were  taken  down  and  flung  into 
the  cave  which  had  been  their  refuge  and  now  became  their 
sepulchre.  At  its  mouth  the  stones  which  had  imprisoned 
them  while  alive  were  again  heaped  up,  and  served  for  many 
a  long  day  as  a  memorial  of  the  memorable  battle  of  Beth- 
horon. 

A  long  and  vigorous  campaign  ensued,  which  resulted  in  the 
conquest  of  the  whole  of  Southern  Palestine.  As  was  natural, 
the  first  place  which  felt  the  Israelites'  power  was  the  one 
nearest  to  their  present  encampment,  the  town  of  Makkedah, 
which  had  sided  with  the  Amorites.  This  offered  little  resist- 
ance ;  it  was  soon  captured,  and  with  its  king  and  people 
suffered  the  fate  of  Jericho,  of  all  the  human  beings  within  its 
walls  not  one  being  left  alive.  Sternly  and  uncompromisingly 
Joshua  executed  the  charge  committed  to  him  ;  as  the  instru- 
ment of  Divine  vengeance  he  had  but  to  do  his  duty,  and  neither 
the  custom  of  the  time  nor  his  own  private  feeling  encouraged 
repugnance  to  what  might  abstractedly  be  deemed  a  most 
odious  and  demoralizing  business.  The  Palestinians  them- 
selves expected  no  gentler  treatment.  They  would  have  dealt 
the  same  measure  to  the  Hebrews,  had  they  won  the  oppor- 
tunity. The  Israelites  were  imbued  with  the  sentiments  and 
views  of  their  age  and  position  ;  and  their  conscience  was  not 
revolted  by  actions  which  a  purer  code  would  have  repudiated. 
Thus  throughout  the  sanguinary  campaign  they  regarded  them- 
selves as  executing  righteous  judgment  under  competent  com- 
mand, and  were  not  made  barbarous  and  cruel  by  this  obedience 
to  a  superior  will.  City  after  city  fell  into  their  hands.  The 
details  of  the  assault  in  each  case  are  not  recorded,  nor  is  the 
capture  of  all  the  towns  mentioned.  Certain  instances  are  given, 
and  we  are  left  to  infer  from  future  circumstances  the  extent  of 
the  present  operations. 

From  Makkedah  the  invaders  turned  westward  to  the  Shephe- 
lah,  and  invested  the  city  of  Libnah.  The  name  of  this  city 
means  "whiteness,"  and  suggests  some  natural  feature  which 
made  it  conspicuous.  Hence  Stanley^  has  identified  it  with  the 
white-faced  hill  opposite  to  Ascalon,  on  the  plain  of  Philistia, 
to  which  the  Crusaders  gave  the  name  of  Blanche-Garde,  and 
which  is  now  called  Tell  es-Safieh.  But  this  is  probably  a 
*  "  Sinai  and  Palestine,"  pp.  207,  257. 


CONQUEST  OF  THE  SOUTH.  9I 

mistake,  as   the  hill  in  question  is  with  much  certainty  now 
considered  to  be  the  site  of  the  ancient  Philistine  city  of  Gath. 
Libnah  is  with  greater  likelihood  thought  to  have  stood  on  the 
remarkable  isolated  hill  covered  to  this  day  with  ruins,  called 
Arak  el-Menshiyeh,  about  five  miles  west   of  Eleutheropolis  ; 
while  Conder  deems  it  to  be  Eleutheropolis  (Beit  Jibrin)  itself. 
In  a  limestone  district  the  appellation  would  be  appropriate  to 
many  a  place  ;  hence  arises  the  difficulty  in  the  identification. 
In  the  later  history  of  Israel  Libnah  occurs  more  than  once.     It 
was  one  of  the  Levitical  cities,  and  from  some  unexplained  reason 
revolted  from  Judah  in  the  days  of  Jehoram,  but  returned  to  its 
allegiance,  or  was  re-conquered  shortly  afterwards,  and  suffered 
a  siege  at  the  hands  of  the  Assyrians.     This  city  Joshua  took, 
and  with  its  king  and  population  utterly  destroyed.     The  next 
town  captured  is   one    also    celebrated    in    connection    with 
Assyrian  invasion.     This   was    Lachish.     One  of  the  most  in- 
teresting of  the  Assyrian  sculptures  brought  to  light  by  modern 
researches,  and  now  in  the  British  Museum,  is  one  representing 
the  capture  of  this  city  by  Sennacherib.     Here  may  be  seen  the 
great  king  seated  on  his  throne  in  front  of  the  town,  while  citizens 
and  captives  prostrate  themselves  at  his  feet,  and  offer  to  him 
precious  things.     The  inscription  in  the  bas-relief  reads  thus : 
"  Sennacherib,  the  king  of  multitudes,  the  king  of  Assyria,  sat 
on  an   upright  throne,  and  the  spoil  of  the  city  of  Lachish 
passed  before  him."'     It  has  been  identified  by  many  high 
authorities  with  Um  Lakis,  a  low  round  hill,  covered  now  with 
heaps  of  stones  and  rubbish,  on  the  road  to  Gaza,  about  eleven 
miles  west  from  Eleutheropolis.     But  as  Lachish  was  a  place  of 
great  strength,  and  more  than  once  baffled  the  attacks  of  the 
Eastern  monarchs,  Um  Lakis,  though  its  geographical  situation 
answers  historical   requirements,  seems   scarcely  to  offer  the 
strategical  position  which  is  demanded.     Hence  Conder  sug- 
gests another  great  mound  in  the  same  direction,  Tell  el  Hesy, 
which  Robinson  describes  as  "a  truncated  cone,  rising  some 
two   hundred   feet,   with  a  fine   plain    on  the   top,   somewhat 
resembling  the  Frank  mountain,  though  by  no  means  so  high. 
.  .  .  A   finer  position  for  a  fortress   or  a  fortified  city   could 
hardly  be   imagined."     And  although  no  remains  of  walls  or 
buildings  now  remain,  travellers,  who  visited   the  place  four 
hundred  years  before  Robinson,  found  there  many  ancient  ruins  ; 
*  Sayce,  "Fresh  Light  from  the  Monuments,"  pp.  123,  124. 


92  JOSHUA. 

and  the  well-known  propensities  of  the  Arabs  for  using  the  old 
materials  to  repair  their  own  houses  would  account  for  the  dis- 
appearance of  the  antique  stones  which  marked  the  site  of 
Lachish.''  A  third  site  has  also  been  proposed,  Zukkarijeh,  a 
height  on  the  same  road,  a  little  nearer  to  Eleutheropolis.  The 
town  made  a  stubborn  defence  against  Joshua's  attack,  and  was 
not  taken  till  the  second  day  of  the  siege,  while  all  the  other 
places  seem  to  have  succumbed  at  once  on  the  appearance  of 
the  invaders.  It  has  been  well  noted  as  one  of  the  undesigned 
coincidences  in  the  Bible,  that  of  all  the  cities  captured  at  this 
time,  Lachish  alone  is  said  to  have  withstood  the  invaders  for 
two  days,  which  is  to  be  accounted  for  by  its  abnormally  strong 
position,  and  is  in  full  agreement  with  what  we  read  of  its 
history  in  succeeding  times.^ 

In  its  resistance  of  the  Israelites  Lachish  was  aided  by  the 
forces  of  Horam,  king  of  Gezer.  This  town,  which  later  was 
called  Gazara,  and  by  Josephus  Gadara,^  has  been  most  suc- 
cessfully identified  with  Tell  el  Jezer,  where  a  bilingual  inscrip- 
tion on  a  rock,  apparently  of  Maccabean  date,  but  recording 
a  more  ancient  Levitical  measurement,  marks  the  "  limit  of 
Gezer."  The  place  is  about  six  miles  east  of  Ekron,  lying 
between  the  valley  of  Ajalon  and  the  sea,  from  which  it  is  four- 
teen miles  distant.  The  Tell  itself,  which  rises  in  prominent 
isolation  about  750  feet  above  sea  level,  "  is  long  and  irregular 
in  shape,  with  terraces  at  its  sides,  supported  by  a  great  wall 
of  large  unhewn  blocks  of  stone.  Near  the  eastern  end  is 
a  raised  square  platform  of  earth,  about  200  feet  each  way, 
containing  similar  blocks.  This  is  all  that  is  now  left  of  the 
once  populous  city.  A  fine  spring  on  the  east  must  have 
supplied  it  abundantly  with  water,  while  the  plain  below 
stretches  out  in  rich  corn-fields  to  the  sand-hills  near  the  sea 
If  it  was  hard  for  the  citizens  to  climb  to  their  lofty  home,  the 
view  from  it  well  repaid  them  when  it  was  reached,  for  the 
plain  of  Sharon  to  the  north,  with  Lydda,  and  doubtless  in 
those  days  many  other  towns  or  villages,  and  the  great  Philis- 
tine plain  to  the  south,  with  its  varying  surface  and  its  busy 
life,  lay  at  their  feet ;  the  purple  mountains  of  Judaea  rising 

*  Conder,  "Quarterly  Paper,"  Jan.,  1878  ;  Robinson,  ii.  390. 
«  Blunt,  "  Undesigned  Coincidences,"  pp.  107  f.      See  2  Kings  xiv.  19  ; 
xix,  8  ;  2  Chron.  xi.  9. 
3  2  Mace.  X.  32  ;  Josephus,  "Ant"  v.  i.  22. 


CONQUEST  OF  THE  SOUTH.  93 

behind  them  to  the  east,  while  the  view  to  the  west  was  only 
closed  by  the  blue  horizon  of  the  great  sea."  *  Lying  far  north- 
ward of  his  present  operations,  Joshua  did  not  think  fit  to  invest 
it  at  this  time,  but  contented  himself  with  inflicting  a  severe 
defeat  on  Horam,  who  perished  with  his  army  under  the  walls 
of  Lachish.  Gezer  became  a  Levitical  city,  but  the  Canaanite 
inhabitants  were  not  exterminated,  and  it  seems  to  have  fallen 
under  the  power  of  the  Egyptians  in  after  time,  as  Pharaoh 
gave  it  as  a  dower  to  his  daughter  when  she  espoused 
Solomon.^ 

It  was  a  short  march  from  Lachish  to  Eglon  (about  three 
miles  distant),  which  was  the  next  place  that  felt  the  irresistible 
might  of  Israel.  There  is  happily  no  difficulty  about  the  identi- 
fication of  this  town.  It  is  the  modern  Ajlan,  which  is 
described  as  a  low  round  white  hillock,  covered  with  scattered 
heaps  of  unhewn  stones,  on  the  direct  road  from  Jerusalem  to 
Gaza,  nine  miles  from  Eleutheropolis,  and  twelve  or  more  from 
Gaza.  The  absence  of  more  regularly  defined  ruins  in  this  and 
many  other  cases  is  accounted  for  by  the  fact  noted  by 
travellers  in  the  East,  that  the  houses  were  usually  built  of 
sun-dried  bricks,  and  walls  and  fortifications  of  a  soft  calcareous 
stone,  which  under  climatic  variations  is  wont  to  crumble  away 
and  leave  little  trace  behind.^  The  town  was  allotted  to 
Judah  when  the  tribes  were  settled,  but  it  is  not  mentioned 
again  in  Scripture. 

Leaving  the  plain  and  marching  eastward,  Joshua  "went 
up"  to  the  hill  country,  and  attacked  the  ancient  city  of 
Hebron,4  which  lay  some  twenty-five  miles  distant.  Unlike 
most  of  the  Palestinian  towns  Hebron  is  placed  in  a  hollow 
with  hills  on  all  sides,  and  its  capture  was  a  task  of  little 
difficulty.  The  inhabitants  had  chosen  another  king  to  fill  the 
place  of  the  one  who  had  perished  at  Makkedah,  and  with  the 
aid  of  the  sons  of  Anak,  a  distinguished  clan  of  the  Amorites, 
who  dwelt  there,  might  have  thought  of  offering  efficient  resist- 
ance ;  but  the  new  monarch  could  save  neither  himself  nor  his 
people  from  destruction.     He  and  his  subjects,  and  the  villages 

*  Geikie,  i.  96  ffl  '  i  Kings  ix.  16, 

3  Robinson,  §  xi.  vol.  ii.  392  ;  Porter,  ap.  "  Kitto's  Cyclop." 

4  Not  to  repeat  what  has  been  said  in  another  place,  I  may  be  allowed 
to  refer,  for  a  description  of  Hebron,  to  "David:  His  Life  and  Times," 
pp.  81,  82. 


94  JOSHUA. 

which  were  dependent  upon  this  mother-city,  suffered  the  usual 
fate.  The  interest  attaching  to  this  place  must  have  been 
intense  to  the  minds  of  Joshua  and  his  pious  followers.  With 
what  a  flood  of  memories  must  they  have  been  overwhelmed  as 
they  beheld  with  their  eyes  the  spot  of  which  they  had  heard  so 
much,  with  which  from  their  ancestors'  stories  they  were 
already  familiar  !  Here  five  hundred  years  ago  the  great 
Abraham  had  pitched  his  tent  ;  if  the  famous  terebinth  tree 
which  had  sheltered  him  was  not  living,  the  spot  where  it  stood 
could  be  easily  identified.  The  whole  locality  was  rife  with 
memorials  of  the  patriarch  ;  here  his  wife  Sarah  had  died,  and 
was  buried  in  Machpelah,  the  double  cave,  which  he  bought  for 
a  family  sepulchre  of  Ephron  the  Hittite.  Here  he  himself  and 
Isaac  and  Jacob  lay  entombed.  With  what  veneration  must 
Joshua  have  regarded  the  twin  vault  with  its  low-browed 
entrance,  not  as  now  blocked  with  massive  masonry,  but 
allowing  ingress  to  the  reverent  pilgrim  !  How  vividly  must 
he  have  realized  the  vitality  and  continuity  of  God's  promises^ 
which  were  even  now  working  out  their  accomplishment,  the 
truth  of  which  was  confirmed  by  the  presence  of  the  Israelites 
at  their  forefathers'  grave  1 

Hebron  and  its  subject  towns  subdued,  the  Israelites  turned 
to  the  south-west,  and  passing  through  the  Wady  el-Dilbeh,, 
with  its  beautiful  springs,  an  unusual  and  welcom^e  sight  in  that 
arid  region,  and  mounting  a  steep  track  girded  with  dwarf- 
o-aks,  arbutus,  and  other  scrub,  they  arrived  in  view  of  Debir, 
which  is  identified  with  the  modern  village  of  Dhaheriyeh^ 
situated  at  a  distance  of  twelve  miles  from  Hebron..  Debir,. 
from  the  names  which  it  has  borne  at  various  epochs,  must 
have  had  a  curious  and  eventful  history.  At  one  time  it  was 
known  as  Kirjath-sanna,  which  is  explained  as  "city  of  law"  j 
at  another  time  it  was  called  Kirjath-sepher,  "city  of  books  "  ;. 
both  names  implying  that  it  was  a  seat  of  learning,  a  home  of 
Canaanite  culture,  and  perhaps  an  ancient  oracle.  The  name 
Debir  is  interpreted  by  Jerome  as  "  Oracle,"  and  it  rs  the  terra 
applied  to  the  sanctuary  in.  Solomon's  temple.  The  geogra- 
phical position  of  this  place  must  have  always  given  it  im- 
portance. One  of  the  south  frontier  strongholds,  it  commanded 
the  roads  from  Egypt  and  the  desert,  from  Gara  and  Beersheba^ 
and  had  certain  towns  dependent  upon  it,  which  made  it 
a  centre  of  vast  consequence  in  the  defence  of  the  country;. 


CONQUEST  OF  THE  SOUTH.  95 

The  excavations  which  have  been  effected  on  the  spot  in  later 
years  have  shown  that  the  town  was  populous  and  strongly- 
fortified  ;  but  it  offered  no  successful  resistance  to  the  attack  of 
the  Israelites  flushed  with  preceding  victories,  and  confident  in 
the  special  support  of  Jehovah  ;  itself  and  its  daughter  cities 
were  utterly  destroyed.* 

With  the  mention  of  the  conquest  of  Debir  the  details  of  the 
operations  in  the  south  are  brought  to  a  close,  and  we  are  told 
generally  that  Joshua  smote  all  the  land,  the  hills,  the  Negeb,  the 
lowland,  and  the  slopes — a  comprehensive  description  which 
summarizes  the  results  of  the  campaign,  and  implies  that  the 
whole  district  from  the  centre  to  the  desert  frontier  in  the  ex- 
treme south  was  subdued.  "  The  hills  "  denote  the  mountainous 
region  extending  southwards  from  Jerusalem.  It  consists  of 
calcareous  rock,  and  forms  the  watershed  between  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  the  Dead  Sea.  Rocky  and  rugged  as  it  is,  it  offers 
many  spots  of  great  fertility  in  the  valleys,  and  afforded  good 
pasturage  to  the  flocks  of  its  numerous  inhabitants.  The 
"Negeb,"  or  south,  is  an  arid  district  of  limestone,  with  but 
few  perennial  springs,  and  therefore  bereft  of  trees,  and  green 
only  in  the  rainy  season.  At  that  time  the  ground  is  decked 
with  flowers — the  daisy,  the  red  anemone,  the  yellow  tulip,  and 
crops  of  corn  are  grown  in  every  available  spot.  It  is  by  no 
means  a  desolate  wilderness,  and  though  tame  and  uninteresting 
to  the  eye  of  the  seeker  after  the  picturesque  and  the  beautiful 
in  nature,  it  offered  facilities  for  cultivation  to  the  diligent  hus- 
bandman who  not  only  ploughed  up  every  level  spot,  but  by  a 
system  of  terraces  utilized  the  very  rocks  and  made  them  sup- 
port his  crops  and  vines.  The  lowland,  or  Shephelah,  was  the 
strip  of  plain  along  the  sea-coast,  extending  from  Carmel  to 
Gaza.  It  was  sandy,  but  productive  and  populous,  and  con- 
tained many  places  of  importance.  The  term  translated  "  the 
springs"  in  the  Authorized  Version,  and  "the  slopes"  in  the 
Revised,  denotes  the  undulating  land  at  the  foot  of  the  Judaean 
hills,  between  them  and  the  Shephelah,  a  region  intersected  by 
brooks  and  ravines,  and  consequently  fertile  and  prosperous. 
The  narratorconcludes  his  summary  with  the  words  :  "Joshua 
smote  them  from  Kadesh-barnea  even  unto  Gaza,  and  all  the 
country  of  Goshen,  even  unto  Gibeon."     The  limits  of  the  con- 

»  Geikie,  i.  360  ff .  ;  "  Quarterly  Paper,"  Jan.,  1875  ;  "  Pulpit  Commen- 
tary "  on  Josh.  X.  38. 


96  JOSHUA. 

quest  are  not  difficult  to  define.  Kadesh-barnea  lies  far  south 
on  the  very  edge  of  the  great  desert  ;  it  had  sad  memories  for 
Joshua  as  the  place  whence  he  had  gone  as  one  of  the  twelve 
spies,  and  which  had  witnessed  the  murmuring  of  the  people 
and  the  sentence  passed  upon  them.  Being  the  chief  or  only- 
city  in  that  quarter,  it  is  probably  introduced  here  to  denote  the 
most  easterly  direction  of  the  conquest,  while  Gaza,  which  lay 
within  a  mile  of  the  sea,  indicates  its  extreme  westerly  extent. 
The  limit  to  the  north  at  this  time  is  marked  by  Gibeon,  the 
submission  of  which  formed  the  prelude  to  this  triumphant 
campaign.  What  is  meant  by  the  country  of  Goshen  is  not 
exactly  known,  but  it  lay  on  the  south-east  of  Judaea,  and  may 
have  been  so  named  by  the  Israelites  in  memory  of  their 
sojourn  in  the  frontier  land  of  Egypt,  whence  also  the  city 
so  called  (chap.  xi.  16  ;  xv.  51)  may  have  derived  its  appella- 
tion. 

Having  accomplished  in  the  course  of  some  weeks  thus  much 
of  his  mighty  enterprise,  Joshua  led  his  army  back  to  the  camp 
at  Gilgal,  there  to  recruit  themselves  after  their  labours  and 
to  prepare  for  fresh  exploits.  The  campaign  had  been  most 
rapid  and  successful,  "  because  the  Lord  God  of  Israel  fought 
for  Israel  ;"  but  it  was  scarcely  as  complete  as  at  first  sight  it 
appears  to  be.  Later  events  prove  that,  although  the  places 
actually  captured  were  then  destroyed  with  their  inhabitants, 
a  large  portion  of  the  population  escaped  the  general  slaughter, 
and  having  withdrawn  in  safety  for  a  time,  on  the  removal 
of  the  attacking  force  they  returned  and  occupied  their  old 
quarters  in  the  vicinity.  It  must  needs  have  been  so.  The 
Israelites  were  not  directed  to  exterminate  the  Canaanites  at 
once ;  such  an  undertaking  was  physically  impossible  under  the 
circumstances,  and  would  have  been  inexpedient  if  feasible. 
The  displacement  was  to  be  gradual.  The  invaders  were  not 
prepared  to  colonize  every  district  which  they  seized  ;  and  to 
massacre  all  the  human  beings,  leaving  the  land  untenanted  by 
man,  was  to  consign  it  to  deterioration  and  desolation.  No 
country  was  more  dependent  upon  manual  labour  for  its  well- 
being.  The  destruction  of  wild  beasts  alone  needed  constant 
vigilance  and  courage.  Besides  this,  where  water  was  but 
scantily  supphed  by  natural  resources,  the  skill  of  man  was 
imperatively  needed  for  its  storage  and  distribution,  and  any 
failure  in   these  respects  involved  dearth  and  famine.    What 


CONQUEST  OF  THE  SOUTH.  97 

neglect  produces  in  once  fertile  districts  may  be  seen  any  day 
in  Palestine,  where  ruined  watercourses,  dilapidated  terraces, 
broken  inclosures,  attest  the  prevalence  of  a  cultivation  which 
has  vanished  long  ago.  Either  from  inability  or  from  policy 
a  large  number  of  places,  as  we  shall  see,  was  left  unconquered. 
Gaza  itself,  a  very  important  Philistine  town  in  a  commanding 
situation,  was  not  acquired.  Indeed,  the  Philistines  seem  to 
have  been  not  disturbed  in  their  possessions  by  Joshua,  who 
never  took,  for  instance,  Gath  or  Ashdod,  Ekron  or  Ashkelon, 
though  most  of  them  are  mentioned  in  the  distribution  as  falling 
to  the  lot  of  Judah.  If  any  of  these  cities  were  captured  by  the 
Hebrews,  they  were  not  retained,  and  were  speedily  re-occupied 
by  the  native  inhabitants,^  Certainly  in  the  times  immediately 
succeeding  those  of  which  we  treat,  the  five  Philistine  cities 
were  in  the  possession  of  the  original  owners  and  actively 
hostile  to  Israel.  In  fact  the  chosen  people  never  did  carry  out 
the  programme  specified.  As  in  all  human  undertakings,  im- 
perfection intervened,  and  in  part  frustrated  and  delayed  the 
designs  of  Providence. 

»  Comp.  Judg.  i.  i8 ;  iii.  3, 


CHAPTER  VII. 

CONQUEST  OF  THE  NORTH. 

Confederacy  formed  in  the  north— Jabin — Waters  of  Merom— Hazor — 
The  confederate  cities  and  tribes ;  Madon ;  Shimron ;  Achshaph ; 
Dor — Canaanite  cavalry  and  chariots — Kadesh— Joshua  makes  a  forced 
march  ;  defeats  the  Canaanites  at  Merom— Sidon — Misrephoth-Maim 
— Treatment  of  horses — Hazor  destroyed — Conquest  gradually  com- 
pleted—  Anakim  —  Hardening  of  the  heart  —  General  survey  of  the 
conquest — Eastern  Palestine — Extent  of  West  territory — Baal-Gad — 
Mount  Halak— List  of  conquered  kings— Geder ;  Hormah  ;  Arad ; 
Adullam;  Taanach  ;  Megiddo ;  Jokneam;  Carmel;  Gilgal ;  Tirzah— 
Unconquered  territory — The  Philistines  ;  Geshurites  ;  River  of  Egypt ; 
Phoenicia  ;  Mearah ;  Aphek ;  Hamath. 

Not  long  had  Joshua  rested  in  the  camp  at  Gilgal  when  he 
heard  that  a  formidable  confederacy  had  been  formed  in  the 
north  in  order  to  resist  his  further  progress,  if  not  to  deprive 
him  of  the  fruit  of  previous  conquests.  At  the  head  of  this 
league  stood  Jabin,  king  of  Hazor.  The  name  Jabin  is  inter- 
preted "  he  understands,"  and  seems  to  have  been  the  hereditary 
and  official  title  of  the  monarchs  of  that  city,  as  Pharaoh  in 
Egypt,  Abimelech  among  the  Philistines,  Caesar  and  Augustus 
at  Rome.  Hazor,  which  signifies  "  a  fort "  or  "  inclosure,"  is 
naturally  a  name  which  appears  in  many  localities,  "as/^r/ 
in  French  and  German,  caer  in  Welsh,  and  the  termination 
cester  in  English."'  The  city  over  which  Jabin  reigned  was 
situated,  according  to  Josephus,^  above  the  Lake  Semechonitis, 
which  is  known  as  the  Waters  of  Merom,  and  now  as  El  Huleh. 
This  lake,  which  is  about  twelve  miles  north  of  Gennesaret,  is 
one  of  the  most  beautiful  spots  in  Palestine.  "The  rich  plains," 
«  "  Pulp.  Comm."  on  Josh.  xi.  i.  »  "Ant."  v.  5.  i. 


CONQUEST  OF  THE  NORTH.  99 

says  Dr.  Geikie,^  "here  brown  with  tilth,  there  bright  with 
crops,  yonder  stretching  out  in  succulent  pastures  dotted  with 
flocks  ;  the  blue  lake  sleeping  beneath  the  hills,  long  reed-beds 
bending  their  feathery  tops  in  the  soft  air,  silver  streams  netting 
the  landscape  ;  the  waters  full  of  water-fowl,  the  trees  vocal 
with  birds,  the  flowers  humming  with  bees  ;  the  native  hamlet, 
the  Arab  camp,  the  herdsman  afield,  the  ploughs  drawn  by  ox, 
or  ass,  or  camel,  slowly  moving  over  the  lea  ;  the  flat-headed 
black  buffalo  delighting  himself  in  the  pools  and  the  soft 
marshy  coolness  ;  the  whole  canopied  by  a  sky  of  crystal  clear- 
ness and  infinite  height — make  up  a  landscape  of  exceeding 
beauty."  "  From  Safed,"  a  town  between  the  Sea  of  Galilee 
and  Merom,  somewhat  to  the  west,  "to  Lake  Huleh  is  a 
gradual  descent  of  nearly  3,000  feet,  over  hill  and  dale,  the 
valleys  running  mainly  east  and  west.  Some  time  before 
reaching  the  lake  the  country  opens,  and  the  lake  itself  lies 
in  one  of  the  pleasantest  valleys  of  Palestine.  The  sheet  of 
water  is  about  two  miles  broad  at  its  widest  part,  and  four  miles 
long ;  but  a  great  marsh  of  papyrus  reed  stretches  for  nearly 
six  miles  north  of  the  clear  surface,  covering  from  one  to  three 
miles  in  breadth.  Through  this  flows  the  Jordan,  as  yet  only 
a  small  stream,  several  tributaries  joining  it  from  different 
wadies  on  its  course,  which,  as  it  passes  through  the  miniature 
forest,  widens  into  small  lakes,  the  haunt  of  innumerable  water- 
fowl, as  the  outer  beds  of  reeds  are  the  lairs  of  swine  and  of 
other  wild  beasts.  ...  On  the  west,  the  Safed  hills  open  out 
into  long  sweeping  plains  and  valleys  of  pleasant  green  ;  but 
on  the  eastern  side  there  is  no  such  broad  border  of  open  land, 
the  hills  rising  close  to  the  pear-shaped  basin  of  the  lake.  The 
water  is  from  twenty  to  thirty  feet  deep,  its  surface  lying  almost 
exactly  on  the  same  level  as  the  sea,  but  nearly  900  feet  above 
the  Lake  of  Galilee." 

Though  the  possible  site  of  Hazor  is  confined  within  narrow 
limits,  it  has  not  been  identified  with  absolute  certainty,  more 
than  one  locality  exhibiting  the  features  which  are  required. 
Sir  Charles  Wilson  finds  the  ancient  city  in  the  ruins  of  Harrah, 
consisting  of  huge  blocks  of  stone,  rudely  hewn,  and  put  to- 
gether without  cement,  which  crown  a  hill  about  a  mile  west  of 
the  lake.  Robinson  fixes  on  Tel  Khuraibeh,  a  hill  occupied  by 
ancient  remains,  nearly  opposite  the  northern  extremity  of  the 
*  "  The  Holy  Land  and  the  Bible,"  ii.  380,  370. 


lOO  JOSHUA. 

lake  at  about  three  miles  to  the  west,  and  evidently  once  a  place 
of  importance  and  of  great  strategical  strength.  Here  the 
modern  name  does  not  recall  the  ancient.  But  Conder  sees 
the  Arabic  equivalent  in  Hadireh,  a  locality  about  one  and  a 
half  miles  from  Robinson's  site,  and  four  south  of  Kadesh,  where 
Jebel  Hadireh  and  Merj  Hadireh,  the  mountain  and  meadow 
of  Hadireh,  may  well  be  regarded  as  representing  the  "  in- 
closure"  of  Hazor.  On  the  plains  below  this  fortress  where  the 
chariots,  here  first  mentioned  in  warfare,  could  be  successfully 
used,  Jabin  was  gathering  a  numerous  host.  The  Canaanites 
had  missed  the  most  favourable  opportunity  for  attacking  the 
invaders.  Split  up  into  a  number  of  petty  states,  divided  by  the 
rivalries  incidental  to  such  a  condition,  with  no  central  authority 
to  inaugurate  a  combined  movement,  the  northerners  had  not 
joined  the  confederacy  of  which  nominally  Adonizedek  was  the 
head,  when  their  active  operations  might  have  put  Joshua 
between  two  enemies  and  crushed  him  at  a  blow  Too  late, 
when  the  southern  district  had  fallen  a  prey  to  the  strangers, 
they  discovered  their  mistake,  and  by  a  concerted  effort  en- 
deavoured to  repair  the  error.  Involuntarily  they  played  into 
Joshua's  hands,  enabling  him  to  deal  in  detail  with  enemies 
whom  he  could  not  have  confronted  in  their  full  strength. 
What  was  the  position  of  Jabin  at  this  crisis  is  not  accurately 
determined.  He  seems  to  have  been  the  head  of  the  move- 
ment, being  perhaps  the  representative  of  the  Hittite  authority 
at  Carchemish.  He  it  was  who,  feeling  the  importance  of  the 
conjuncture  and  the  necessity  of  immediate  and  combined 
action,  summoned  his  fellow-countrymen  to  meet  on  the  shores 
of  Merom,  and  there  to  make  a  strenuous  effort  to  repel  the 
audacious  invaders.  The  summons  to  join  the  confederacy 
was  not  confined  to  the  tribes  in  this  district  alone  ;  while  they 
were  naturally  the  first  to  be  invited,  others  far  remote  received 
the  same  call.  The  narrator  is  careful  to  specify  all,  that  the 
power  of  God  might  be  better  acknowledged,  when  He  gave 
victory  to  Israel  against  such  overwhelming  odds.  It  was  a 
supreme  effort,  an  imperative  mandate,  like  that  of  the  fiery 
cross  or  the  oriflamme  in  mediaeval  times.  First  in  the  cata- 
logue of  allies  comes  Jobab,  king  of  Madon,  a  town  (now 
Madin)  situated  some  twenty  miles  south,  near  the  so-called 
Horns  of  Hattin,  two  grassy  knolls  on  the  west  of  Gennesareth, 
where  tradition  says  our  Lord  preached    His  Sermon  on  the 


CONQUEST  OF  THE  NORTH.  lOI 

Mount,  and  where,  in  1187,  after  a  hotly  contested  battle  of  two 
days'  duration,  Saladin  utterly  defeated  the  Christians  and 
secured  the  kingdom  of  Jerusalem  for  the  Mohammedan  power. 
From  Madon  the  message  sped  to  Shimron,  which,  under  its 
Talmudic  name  Simunieh,  is  found  on  a  hill  on  the  northern 
edge  of  the  plain  of  Esdraelon,  five  miles  due  west  of  Nazareth  ; 
thence  it  was  forwarded  to  Achshaph,  the  modern  Kefr  Yasif, 
twenty  miles  north-west  of  Shimron  and  six  north-east  of  Accho 
(Acre).*  Thus  the  chiefs  of  the  Province  of  Galilee,  as  we  know 
it,  were  foremost  in  joining  the  confederacy.  But  this  limited 
circle  by  no  means  met  the  views  of  Jabin  ;  he  desired  to 
engage  in  the  enterprise  representatives  of  all  the  tribes  of 
Canaan.  Northwards  to  the  kings  of  the  mountains  under 
Lebanon,  southward  to  those  that  dwelt  in  the  plains  below 
Gennesareth  and  in  the  fair  valley  of  Esdraelon,  the  summons 
came.  The  Arabah,  the  Jordan  valley  on  the  east,  the  Shephe- 
lah,  the  lowland  district  on  the  west,  sent  forth  their  warriors. 
The  ancient  city  Dor,  celebrated  alike  for  its  harbour  and  the 
mussel  which  furnished  the  far-famed  Tyrian  dye,  responded 
to  the  call.  Situated  on  a  rugged  promontory  twelve  miles 
south  of  Carmel,  and  nine  north  of  Csesarea,  the  modern  village 
of  Tanturah  represents  this  Canaanite  town  ;  but  the  chief 
remains  are  of  Roman  date,  slabs  of  marble,  sculptured  capitals 
and  hewn  stones  strewing  the  shore,  and  attesting  former 
opulence  and  prosperity.^  From  the  sea-coast  still  farther 
south,  from  tribes  as  yet  unsubdued,  from  the  remnants  of  the 
southern  confederacy,  Amorites,  Hittites,  Perizzites,  Jebusites, 
from  the  land  of  Mizpah  under  Hermon,  and  where  Coele-Syria 
extends  its  vast  plains,  contingents  assembled  in  large  numbers. 
Well  armed,  animated  by  a  fierce  patriotism,  and  containing  in 
their  ranks  many  hardy  mountaineers,  skilled  in  the  use  of 
weapons  and  practised  in  war,  the  Canaanite  host  was  formid- 
able in  appearance  and,  as  it  seemed,  invincible  in  power. 
They  could  boast  of  superiority  in  arms  and  in  military  train- 
ing, they  could  point  with  confidence  to  their  strong  fortifica- 
tions, they  could  vaunt  their  high  civilization  so  far  above 
the  capacities  of  the  nomadic  horde  which  had  presumed  to 
invade  the  land.    One  element  in  this  army  inspired  the  utmost 

*  These  identifications  are  not  certain.  I  have  adopted  them  from 
Captain  C  nder  and  Mr.  Archibald  Henderson's  Handbook,  "  Palestine," 
as  they  give  definiteness  to  our  picture.  =*  Geikie,  i.  70. 


102  JOSHUA. 

terror,  and  this  was  the  cavalry  and  the  chariots.  The  Israel- 
ites were  foot  soldiers  ;  they  had  never  employed  horses  in  their 
wars,  and  were  indeed  utterly  unused  to  the  sight  of  them. 
The  enemies  whom  hitherto  they  had  met,  like  themselves 
fought  on  foot  ;  they  were  highlanders  and  used  highland  modes 
of  warfare.  But  these  northern  plains  offered  facilities  for  the 
operations  of  cavalry,  and  the  iron  chariots  were  one  of  the 
most  effective  and  formidable  parts  of  the  Canaanite  army.  The 
term  "  iron  "  applied  to  these  vehicles  refers  only  to  the  material 
of  which  the  tires  of  the  wheels  were  made,  in  contradistinction 
to  the  rude  wooden  discs  of  the  agricultural  carts.  The  chariots 
were  not  armed  with  the  scythe  as  those  used  by  Britons  and 
Gauls  in  primitive  days  ;  they  were  simply  carriages  on  two  low 
wheels,  closed  in  front  and  entered  from  behind,  drawn  by  two 
horses,  and  occupied  usually  by  two  persons,  of  whom  one  man- 
aged the  steeds  and  the  other  plied  his  weapons,  arrows,  javelins, 
and  spear.  It  was  the  appearance  and  rush  of  these  vehicles 
drawn  by  strange  animals  that  made  them  so  much  dreaded  ; 
the  lances  of  infantry  resolutely  opposed  to  them,  never  failed 
to  stop  the  most  vehement  onslaught,  but  it  required  unusual 
nerve  to  face  this  attack  unmoved,  and  it  needed  experience  in 
the  safety  secured  by  steadiness  and  obedience  to  enable  raw 
troops  to  stand  the  charge.  The  Israelites,  who  were  forbidden 
to  multiply  horses,  lest  they  should  wish  to  return  to  Egypt  or 
enter  on  foreign  wars,  or  learn  luxurious  habits,  viewed  these 
chariots  with  the  same  dismay  with  which  the  Romans  beheld 
elephants  for  the  first  time  in  an  enemy's  lines,  and  a  word  of 
Divine  encouragement  alone  gave  them  spirit  to  contend  with 
a  foe  possessed  of  this  unfamiliar  arm.  On  the  wide  plain  be- 
low the  Lake  Huleh  the  vast  host  of  the  Canaanites  assembled. 
That  it  was  of  formidable  numbers  is  evident  from  the  hyper- 
bolical description  of  the  narrator  :  "  They  went  out,  tliey  and 
all  their  hosts  with  them,  much  people,  even  as  the  sand  that 
is  upon  the  sea  shore  in  multitude,  with  horses  and  chariots 
very  many."  Josepbus,^  gathering  his  facts  we  know  not 
whence,  reckons  their  forces  at  three  hundred  thousand  foot, 
ten  thousand  horse,  and  twenty  thousand  chariots — an  amount 
that  seems  incredible  ;  he  also  makes  them  encamp  "  near  the 
cityBerotha  in  Upper  Galilee,  not  far  from  Kedesa."  The  city 
Beroth  is  unknown,  but  Kadesh  is  celebrated  as  the  birthplace 
'   "Ant."  V.  I.  i8. 


CONQUEST  OF  THE  NORTH,  I03 

of  Barak,  the  Intrepid  vanquisher  of  Sisera,  the  commander 
under  another  (if  he  was  another)  Jabin.'  The  ruins  of  the 
latter  place  are  found  four  miles  north-west  of  Lake  Merom, 
situated  on  the  spur  of  a  hill  overlooking  a  rich  plain.  It  is  one 
•of  the  towns  mentioned  in  the  Karnak  inscription  as  taken  by 
Thotmes  III.  in  his  expedition  into  Palestine. 

News  of  this  great  gathering  at  the  waters  of  Merom  soon 
reached  Joshua  at  Gilgal.  Whether  the  Canaanites  intended 
to  assume  the  offensive  and  march  to  attack  the  Hebrews,  is 
aiot  ascertained,  though  as  their  force  consisted  so  largely  o( 
■chariots  and  horses  it  is  unlikely  that  they  would  attempt  to 
move  from  the  plains  where  alone  this  arm  could  be  of  service. 
Most  likely  they  expected  to  attack  the  Israelites  on  their 
■appearance  from  the  south  ;  but  they  were  by  no  means  pre- 
pared for  Joshua's  tactics.  That  skilful  commander  determined 
to  take  the  enemy  by  surprise  as  he  had  done  at  Gibeon.  The 
distance  from  Gilgal  to  Merom  is  about  seventy  miles.  Josephus 
says  that  the  march  took  five  days,  which  may  well  have  been 
consumed  in  moving  a  large  body  of  men  through  that  difficult 
-country.  When  within  a  few  miles  of  Gennesareth,  Joshua 
learned  from  his  spies  the  numbers  and  equipment  of  the 
enemy.  Then,  lest  the  vastness  of  the  host  and  the  unusual 
spectacle  of  chariots  and  horses  should  dismay  the  Israelites, 
the  word  of  the  Lord  came  to  him,  saying :  "  Be  not  afraid 
because  of  them  ;  for  to-morrow  at  this  time  will  I  [emphatic] 
•deliver  them  up  all  slain  before  Israel ;  thou  shalt  hough  their 
liorses,  and  burn  their  chariots  with  fire."  After  such  an  assur- 
ance there  could  be  no  doubt  or  fear  ;  the  result  was  certain  ; 
however  great  the  odds  and  unusual  the  danger,  victory  should 
be  with  God's  people.  Suddenly,  while  the  Canaanites  deemed 
him  faraway,  Joshua  from  one  of  the  mountain  passes  swooped 
down  upon  the  enemy,  fell  upon  them  like  a  thunderbolt,  as  the 
original  has  it.  Before  they  realized  the  attack  he  was  among 
them.  Thrown  into  confusion,  with  no  time  to  rallv,  unable  to 
use  the  chariots  on  wrhich  they  so  greatly  relied,  their  very 
numbers  only  impeding  their  movements,  the  Canaanites  were 
put  to  the  sword.     Then  ensued  a  panic  and  a  headlong  flight 

*  The  episode  of  Deborah  and  Barak  is  thought  by  some  critics  to  belong 
<o  the  time  of  Joshua,  as  they  consider  it  unlikely  that  Hazor  could  have 
recovered  from  its  utter  overthrow  during  the  time  of  the  Judges  ;  but  Iha 
allusions  in  Deborah's  song  hardly  apply  to  the  days  of  Josliua. 


I04  JOSHUA. 

Some  fled  to  the  north-west,  some  to  the  south  and  south-west 
others  to  the  east.  The  former  body  of  fugitives  made  for  the 
friendly  city  of  Sidon  ("great  Zidon,"  as  the  historian  calls  it,  as 
bemg  the  metropolis  of  Phoenicia),  which  was  some  forty  miles 
distant.  They  would  reach  that  place  by  taking  to  the  northern 
mountains,  crossing  the  Leontes,  and  passing  along  the  plain 
to  the  sea-coast  ;  and  this  stronghold,  famed  in  Homeric  song,' 
rising  majestically  on  its  rocky  site,  girt  on  three  sides  by  the 
sea,  and  on  its  land  side  defended  by  a  high  wall  with  flanking 
towers,  offered  a  secure  refuge  which  the  Israelites  were  power- 
less to  capture.  Another  band  of  fugitives  made  for  Misrephoth- 
Maim,  "  burnings  of  waters,"  a  peculiar  appellation  which  is 
supposed  to  refer  either  to  hot  springs,  or  salt  pits,  or,  with  little 
probability,  to  glass  houses  for  which  in  later  time  the  locality 
was  famous.  The  situation  is  undetermined,  but  as  it  was 
without  question  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Sidon,  and  there  is  a 
certain  affinity  in  the  names,  it  has  been  identified  with  Zare- 
phath  or  Sarepta  {hod.  Surafend)  on  the  coast  some  six  miles 
south  of  Sidon.  The  place  has  always  retained  its  fame  from 
its  connection  with  the  great  propliet  Elijah,  and  to  this  day  the 
remains  of  a  church  are  exhibited  which  are  said  to  mark  the 
site  of  the  widow's  house.  Yet  another  party  of  the  defeated 
Canaanites  retreated  to  the  valley  of  Mizpeh,  under  the  snow- 
capped Hermon,  whence  in  all  the  pride  of  power  and  military- 
arrogance  they  had  lately  set  forth.  Of  the  fugitives,  those  that 
were  overtaken  were  slain  without  mercy,  their  chariots  were 
burned,  and  the  horses  were  houghed  or  hamstrung  so  as  to  be 
i-endered  useless^  This  was  done  in  obedience  to  the  command 
of  the  Lord,  Joshua  in  this,  as  in  all  other  respects,  giving  an 
example  of  complete  obedience.  Thus  the  Israelites  were 
taught  not  to  put  their  trust  in  chariots  and  horses,  but  in  the 
Lord  alone ;  the  Canaanites  learned  the  futility  of  their  best 
efforts  and  most  formidable  appliances  when  employed  against 
the  chosen  people.  Besides  this,  there  was  sound  policy  in  the 
measure.  Horses  to  the  Hebrews  who  were  entirely  unpractised 
in  their  use,  would  have  been  a  burden  as  well  as  a  snare.  They 
would  have  had  to  maintain  them,  and  take  them  with  them  in 
their  campaigns,  lest  the  enemy  should  gain  possession  of  them 
and  use  them  to  their  hurt.  To  render  them  of  no  avail  for 
military  purposes  was  like  the  practice  in  modern  warfare  of 
*  Horn.  "  II."  vi.  289  ff.  ;  xxiii.  741  ff.  \  "  Od."  xv.  425. 


CONQUEST  OF  THE  NORTH.  I05 

spiking  an  enemy's  guns  which  cannot  be  carried  off.  Moun- 
taineers like  the  Israelites  had  no  more  use  for  horses  than  the 
Highlanders  in  Scotland  or  the  hardy  Swiss  ;  and  as  these 
animals  were  not  employed  in  agricultural  operations,  the 
maiming  of  them  was  simply  depriving  an  opponent  of  an 
effective  arm.  So  a  general  has  sometimes  to  destroy  ammu- 
nition and  provisions  which  he  cannot  secure  for  his  own 
purposes. 

Having  pursued  the  defeated  Canaanites  till  they  were  dis- 
persed or  had  taken  refuge  in  inaccessible  positions,  Joshua 
returned  towards  the  scene  of  the  late  battle,  and  invested 
Hazor.  It  is  not  unlikely  that  on  their  utter  defeat  Jabin  and 
his  allies  submitted  to  certain  terms,  and  agreed  to  become 
vassals  of  their  conquerors,  but  that  while  Joshua  was  pursuing 
his  victories  in  distant  quarters,  they  had  revolted  and  resumed 
their  independence,  trusting  to  the  strength  of  Hazor  as  the 
centre  of  the  insurrection.  Such  proceedings  must  be  checked 
by  prompt  and  severe  measures,  and  Hazor  must  be  made  an 
example  of  the  fate  that  awaited  rebellion.  This  place  accord- 
ingly, as  the  metropolis  of  these  northern  tribes,  and  a  strong- 
hold of  vast  importance,  he  took  and  burned  to  the  ground, 
putting  to  the  sword  the  king  and  all  the  inhabitants,  with  the 
design  of  preventing  any  future  occupation  while  his  attention 
was  occupied  in  other  quarters.  In  much  the  same  manner  he 
treated  the  cities  which  had  actually  taken  part  in  the  war,  and 
had  sent  their  contingents  to  the  gathering  at  Merom  ;  their 
kings  and  their  people  he  utterly  destroyed,  as  Moses  had 
commanded,  only  taking  the  spoil  and  the  cattle  for  a  prey,  the 
places  not  being  devoted,  like  Jericho,  though  the  human  beings 
were.  None  of  these  towns,  however,  he  thought  it  necessary 
to  consume  with  fire ;  he  left  them  each  standing  on  its  own 
hill,'  contenting  himself  with  depriving  them  of  their  populace, 
and  seizing  their  property.  Thus  in  his  entire  conscientiousness 
did  Joshua  execute  the  orders  of  his  great  predecessor,  his  one 
aim  being  to  do  his  duty  and  to  obey. 

Of  the  desultory  wars  that  followed  the  great  battle  of  Merom 
we  have  no  detailed  account,  nor  do  we  know  exactly  how  long 
they  lasted.     It  is  certain,  however,  that  the  conquest  of  the 

'  The  Authorized  Version  has,  "cities  that  stood  still  in  their  strength," 
but  the  Hebrew  is  literally,  "that  stood  on  their  mound,"  and  this  means 
merely,  each  on  its  hill,  such  being  the  usual  position  of  cities  in  Canaan. 


Io6  JOSHUA. 

land  took  from  five  to  seven  years,  and  the  grand  results  which 
are  enumerated  in  chapter  xii.  were  effected  after  long-con- 
tinued efforts,  comprising  expeditions,  battles,  and  sieges,  of 
which  no  record  is  preserved.  In  many  cases  territory  once 
conquered  was  re-occupied  by  the  original  inhabitants  on  the 
withdrawal  of  the  victorious  Israelites,  and  had  to  be  recovered 
by  further  contests.  This  was  the  case  with  Hebron  and  the 
towns  in  its  vicinity,  with  Debir  and  Anab.  This  latter  city, 
the  name  of  which  still  survives,  lay  amid  the  Judasan  hills, 
some  ten  miles  south  of  Hebron,  and  one  mile  from  Debir. 
These  places  had  been  seized  by  the  Anakims,  who  had  to  be 
dispossessed  before  the  families  to  whom  they  were  allotted 
could  colonize  them.  We  shall  hear  of  these  proceedings  in 
another  chapter.  The  Anakims  were  a  race  of  huge  stature, 
either  aboriginals  or  very  early  immigrants  from  the  region  of 
Babylon,  who  had  settled  at  first  on  the  eastern  side  of  Jordan, 
in  the  territories  afterwards  known  as  Edom  and  Moab,  and 
subsequently  had  occupied  the  hill  country  of  Judaea,  and  taken 
refuge  in  the  cities  of  the  Philistines.  It  was  the  sight  of  these 
giants  which  had  so  alarmed  the  spies  when  they  penetrated  to 
the  vale  of  Hebron  on  their  visit  of  reconnoissance,  and  led 
them  basely  to  shrink  from  an  enterprise  which  involved  a 
contest  with  such  terrible  foes.  The  greater  portion  of  these 
people  was  exterminated  at  this  time,  but  a  minority  was  amal- 
gamated with  the  Philistines  of  Gaza,  Gath,  and  Ashdod,  and  a 
family  of  them  existed  in  Saul's  time,  when  the  shepherd  lad 
with  his  sling  and  stone  overcame  the  blustering  champion 
Goliath,  and  even  later,  when  David's  chosen  warriors  en- 
countered and  slew  the  giant's  brethren.  Deteriorating  in 
size  and  strength  as  they  changed  their  free  mountain  air  and 
habits  for  the  atmosphere  and  enervating  life  of  lowland  cities, 
they  gradually  died  out,  and  are  never  mentioned  in  subsequent 
histories. 

We  may  now  take  a  general  survey  of  the  extent  to  which 
these  conquests  extended.  Not  that  the  subjugation  of  all  the 
districts  named  was  complete  at  this  time,  or  that  the  former 
inhabitants  were  annihilated.  Such  a  result  was  not  intended, 
and,  as  we  have  already  seen,  would  have  been  highly  inex- 
pedient, throwing  much  land  out  of  cultivation,  and  introducing 
all  the  evils  of  depopulation.  But  for  the  moment  all  opposi- 
tion was  overcome  ;  armed  resistance  was  at  an  end ;  there 


CONQUEST  OF  THE   NORTH.  I07 

was  no  longer  any  confederacy  to  be  dreaded  ;  the  possession 
of  the  land  was  a  gradual  process  indeed,  but  one  that  might 
now  advance  unchecked  and  with  certainty.  After  the  terrible 
examples  which  they  had  witnessed,  the  Canaanites  were  con- 
tent to  live  at  peace  in  such  places  as  were  left  to  them,  and 
acquiesced  in  sullen  submission  while  the  invaders  portioned  out 
the  land.  None  ofthem,indeed,made  overtures  to  the  conquerors 
save  the  wily  Gibeonites,  for,  as  the  historian  notes,  with  respect 
to  the  rest,  "  it  was  of  the  Lord  to  harden  their  hearts,  to  come 
against  Israel  in  battle,  that  he  might  utterly  destroy  (devote) 
them,  that  they  might  have  no  favour  ;  but  that  he  might 
destroy  them,  as  the  Lord  commanded  Moses."  This  harden- 
ing of  the  heart  is  the  effect  of  the  operation  of  well-known  laws. 
It  was  seen,  though  wrongly  understood,  by  the  heathen.  We 
are  all  familiar  with  the  proverb  :  "  Quem  Deus  vult  perdere  prius 
dementat,"  implyingthe  moral  perverseness  of  those  who,  in  spite 
of  knowledge  and  warning,  rush  to  perdition.  The  phrase  is 
used  frequently  of  Pharaoh  ;  it  is  used  of  the  Egyptians  when 
they  recklessly  pursued  the  Israelites  to  their  own  destruction. 
But  we  are  not  hence  to  infer  that  there  was  any  interference 
with  men's  moral  freedom  in  these  cases.  If  they  resist  the 
intimations  of  God's  will  conveyed  to  them  by  the  inward 
monitions  of  conscience,  or  by  competent  messengers,  or  by 
external  circumstances,  their  moral  sense  is  weakened,  they  are 
blinded  even  to  prudential  considerations  ;  and  this  is  said  to 
be  God's  doing  because  He  foreknows  the  result ;  it  is  in  obedi- 
ence to  a  universal  law,  and  is  often  a  punishment  inflicted  by 
God.  The  hardening  does  not  precede,  but  follows  on  sin. 
Men  first  harden  their  own  hearts  before  God  hardens  them. 
And  when  He  does  this  He  acts  judicially,  punishing  sinners 
by  their  sin.  The  Canaanites  who  had  persisted  in  their  idolatry 
and  degrading  vice,  and  had  not  profited  by  the  plain  evidence 
of  God's  interposition  in  the  case  of  the  Israelites,  were  blinded 
to  their  own  interests  and  recklessly  hurried  to  destruction. 
The  country  on  the  east  of  Jordan  had  been  conquered  towards 
the  close  of  the  life  of  Moses,  the  legislator  being  led  to  effect 
the  seizure  by  the  irresistible  force  of  circumstances,  rather  than 
by  any  deliberate  desire  of  colonizing  this  comparatively  exposed 
and  defenceless  district.  It  was  a  large  and  fertile  region, 
affording  to  the  colonists  much  greater  scope  for  expansion 
than  fell  to  their  brethren  in  the  comparatively  confined  quarters 


Io8  JOSHUA. 

on  the  western  side  of  Jordan.  Its  limits  were  the  Arnon  on  the 
south,  and  Harmon  or  Antilibanus  on  the  north.  The  Arnon 
loses  itself  in  the  Dead  Sea  about  the  middle  of  the  eastern 
side,  so  that  we  may  reckon  the  extent  of  this  territory  at  about 
1 20  miles  long,  with  an  average  breadth  of  50.  The  whole 
eastern  edge  of  the  Arabah  from  the  upper  lakes  to  the  lower 
lay  within  its  confines  ;  it  comprised  the  rich  pastures  of  the 
land  of  Gilead,  the  forests  and  corn  lands  of  Bashan,  as  well  as 
the  stony  tract  of  Argob  with  its  multitude  of  strong  cities  and 
impregnable  fortresses.  There  were,  indeed,  some  portions 
which  were  left  unsubdued.  The  Ammonites,  in  the  centre  of 
the  country,  with  their  formidable  capital  city,  Rabbah,  were 
not  disturbed  at  this  time  ;  nor  were  the  Moabites,  south  of  the 
Arnon  and  the  Dead  Sea,  dispossessed  ;  and  even  some  of  the 
Midianite  settlements  were  allowed  to  stand.  But  with  all 
these  exceptions  the  trans-Jordanic  tribes  were  blessed  with 
ample  possessions  and  a  soil  of  abundant  fertility.  Concerning 
the  centre  of  this  district,  the  country  lying  between  the  Lake 
of  Tiberias  and  the  Dead  Sea,  Mr.  Selah  Merrill '  writes  as  fol- 
lows :  "  For  the  first  four  hours  one  could  hardly  see  in  any 
country  a  more  delightful  region  in  which  to  travel.  It  is 
utterly  unlike,  in  every  respect,  the  country  which  travellers 
usually  see  in  Western  Palestine.  Here  are  old  forests.  The 
oaks  are  covered  with  moss,  birds  abound  among  the  trees,  the 
road  is  broad  and  free  from  stone.  The  views  to  the  west  of 
the  Jordan  valley  and  the  mountains  beyond,  of  Jebel  esh  Sheikh 
directly  before  us  in  the  north,  gleaming  in  the  sun,  and  to  the 
east  of  the  ancient  Bashan  plain,  are  wide  and  magnificent,  and 
the  wheat-fields  and  other  marks  of  fertility  everywhere  make 
me  forget  that  I  am  in  poverty-stricken  Palestine.  .  .  .  This 
portion  of  the  Gilead  mountains  is  particularly  diversified  and 
beautiful.  Uplands  and  gentle  slopes,  large  forests  with  paths 
winding  through  them,  green  fields  of  grass  and  wheat,  sheltered 
and  sunny  valleys,  and  still  other  romantic  features  exist  here, 
which  are  not  found  in  other  portions  of  the  country.  .  .  .  From 
certain  summits  the  view  towards  the  west  is  magnificent,  com- 
manding the  Dead  Sea,  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  the  entire  Jordan 
valley,  and  much  of  Western  Palestine  besides  ;  while  from 
other  points  the  sweep  to  the  north,  the  south,  and  the  east  is 
almost  unlimited.  The  eye  runs  from  Damascus  and  its  fertile 
'    '  East  of  the  Jordan,"  pp.  292,  356,  372  f. 


CONQUEST  OF  THE  NORTH.  109 

plain  far  down  into  the  remote  regions  of  Moab,  and  although 
far  to  the  east  the  Hainan  mountains  cut  oft  the  view  in  that 
direction,  yet  the  prospect  to  the  north-east  and  south-east  is 
unobstructed.  One  sees  all  Bashan  lying  like  a  garden  or  a 
prairie  at  one's  feet.  The  view  embraces  also  a  large  part  of 
Moab  and  Gilead.  Trachonitis,  Auranitis,  Batanea,  Gaulanitis, 
and  Itursea  can  from  some  points  be  brought  under  the  eye  at 
once  Bozrah  is  there,  a  city  five  miles  in  circumference, 
appearing  like  a  small  black  spot  on  the  plain.  There  is  the 
battle-field  where  King  Og  was  defeated.  Yonder  are  his  two 
capitals,  Ashtaroth  and  Edrei.  There  are  the  sites  of  the  sixty 
cities  which  had  walls  and  brazen  bars.  Yonder  is  the  route  of 
the  great  army  of  the  Israelites  under  Moses  and  Joshua." 

*'  Another  striking  peculiarity  of  the  land  beyond  Jordan  is 
its  fine  water  supply,  as  contrasted  with  Western  Palestine, 
especially  with  the  upper  lands  of  Judfea.  The  rain,  falling  on 
the  plateau  and  on  the  Syrian  desert  further  east,  sinks  through 
the  chalk  to  the  impervious  limestone  beneath,  and  running 
westward  along  this  bed,  issues  in  fine  springs  about  five 
hundred  feet  below  the  level  of  the  plateau.  From  these  springs 
considerable  brooks  run  down  each  gorge,  even  in  the  dry 
autumn,  and  form  affluents  to  the  Jordan,  or  deliver  their 
waters  into  the  Dead  Sea  itself  Nothing  was  more  remarkable 
in  Moab  when  crossing  from  the  Hebron  mountains  and  the 
Mar  Saba  desert  than  thus  to  find  ourselves  suddenly  entering 
a  '  land  of  streams  ; '  but,  as  at  Damascus,  it  is  only  the  imme- 
diate course  of  the  stream  which  remains  green,  with  rushes, 
reeds,  and  brambles,  while  the  mountains  above  are  as  bare  and 
colourless  as  though  there  were  no  water  in  the  land."  ^ 

The  extent  of  the  conquered  territory  on  the  west  of  Jordan 
is  stated  with  much  precision  as  reaching  ''  from  Baal-Gad,  in 
the  valley  of  Lebanon,  even  unto  the  Mount  Halak,  that  goeth 
up  to  Seir."  The  name  of  the  northern  limit  is  a  reminder  of 
the  idolatry  which  was  prevalent,  and  which  the  conquerors  had 
to  extirpate.  It  is  the  place  of  the  "  Lord  of  Fortune,"  a  place 
where  Baal  was  worshipped  under  the  aspect  of  God  of  Luck- 
Standing  on  an  isolated  hill  at  the  base  of  the  snow-capped 
Hermon,  the  city  has  been  easily  identified  under  various  names, 
and  has  had  an  interesting  history.  It  is  now  called  Banias  ;  in 
pre-Christian  times  it  was  known  as  Panium  or  Paneas,  when 
'  Conder,  "  Heth  and  Moab,"  123. 


I  lO  JOSHUA. 

the  worship  of  Pan  superseded  that  of  Baal,  many  memoriars 
of  both  of  these  cults  being  still  found  in  the  neighbourhood. 
Coming  into  the  possession  of  Philip,  Tetrarch  of  Trachonitis, 
that  prince  added  greatly  to  the  town,  and  adorned  it  with 
splendid  buildings,  and,  combining  a  memorial  of  his  awn  name 
with  a  subtle  flattery  of  the  emperor,  called  it  Caesarea  Philippic 
Herod  Agrippa  II.  re-named  it  Neronias.  Its  situation  is  one 
of  quite  remarkable  beauty.  It  stands  at  the  end  of  a  gorge  of 
the  Hermon  range,  "  with  tall  limestone  cliffs  to  the  north  and 
east,  a  rugged  torrent  of  basalt  to  the  south,  and  a  gentle  wooded 
slope  for  its  western  front."  Here  are  seen  hills  clothed  with 
trees  and  verdant  crops  mingled  with  masses  of  naked  rock, 
rich  valleySy  cascades,  rivers,  every  variety  of  vegetation^ 
Dean  Stanley  compares  the  Huleh  plain  that  spreads  in  front 
of  Banias  to  the  Campagna,  as  seen  from  the  mouth  of  the 
gorge  at  Tivoli.  Behind  the  present  village  there  is  a  great 
natural  cavern  in  a  cliff  some  hundred  feet  high,  in  front  of 
which  a  stream  of  water  bursts  forth,  which  is  one  of  the  upper 
sources  of  the  Jordan.^  It  was  on  one  of  the  hills  in  this  neigh- 
bourhood that  our  Lord's  Transfiguration  took  place.  This, 
then,  was  the  northern  boundary  to  which  Joshua's  conquests  ex- 
tended. What  is  meant  by  the  southern  limit,  the  Mount  Halak, 
is  not  quite  clear.  There  is  no  hill  so  named  to  be  found  y 
hence  critics  have  fallen  back  on  the  signification  of  the  word 
which  may  be  explained  as  "the  smooth,"  or  "  bald  mouncain.'' 
This  description  would  apply  to  the  character  of  the  hills  in  the 
south  of  Palestine,  towards  the  district  of  Seir  or  Edom,  and 
especially  to  a  range  of  naked  white  cliffs  which  cross  the 
Arabah  obliquely  about  ten  miles  south  of  the  Dead  Sea,  con- 
necting the  mountam  chain  on  the  west  with  the  mountains  of 
Seir  on  the  east.^  This  would  be  a  natural  landrrark,  and 
might  appropriately  be  regarded  as  the  southern  boundary  of 
the  conquered  territory,  which  would  have  been  i8o  miles  in 
length,  with  a  breadth,  if  we  include  the  eastern  settlements,  of 
from  50  to  100  miles. 

The  chronicler  proceeds  (chap,  xii.)  to  give  a  list  of  the  kings 
conquered  during  these  wars  in  the  western  district,  enumerating 
them  apparently  in  the  order  in  which  they  actually  encountered 

*  "  Pulpit  Commentary  "  on  Josh.  xi.  17;  Tristram,  "Land  of  Israel," 
581  ff.  ;  Geikie,  "  Holy  Land,"  ii,  393  ff. 

2  Porter,  a/>.  Kitto,  "Cyclop.,"  and  Keil  in  loc. 


CONQUEST  OF  THE   NORTH.  Ill 

the  Israelites.  They  are  thirty-one  in  number — a  significant 
fact  which  points  to  the  conckision  that,  in  order  to  hold  their 
own  against  their  powerful  neighbours,  they  must  have  had 
some  kind  of  organized  confederacy  among  themselves,  headed 
by  the  monarchs  of  Jerusalem  and  Hazor,  and  probably  in 
subjection  to  the  great  Hittite  chieftain  at  Carchemish.  A  large 
proportion  of  these  kings  are  among  those  whose  fall  has  been 
previously  mentioned,  but  there  are  many  others  not  hitherto 
enumerated.  The  most  important  of  the  new  names  belonging 
to  the  southern  league  are  those  of  Geder,  Hormah,  Arad,  and 
Adullam.  Geder  is  probably  the  same  place  as  Gedor(i  Chron. 
iv.  39),  now  Jedar,  seven  miles  north  of  Hebron.  Of  Hormah 
and  Arad  we  read  in  Moses'  time.  The  latter  place  is  mentioned 
as  destroyed  by  Moses  in  punishment  of  an  unprovoked  attack 
made  upon  the  Israelites  when  they  approached  that  neighbour- 
hood ;  ^  it  may  be  that  the  ofifence  was  not  fully  avenged  till 
Joshua  included  it  in  his  conquests,  or  that  he  had  to  repeat 
the  chastisement  inflicted  by  his  predecessor.  The  spot  is 
easily  identified.  On  a  plateau  seventeen  miles  south  of 
Hebron,  and  twenty  east  of  Beersheba,  is  an  eminence,  with 
remains  of  a  reservoir  and  ancient  pottery  upon  it,  still  bearing 
the  name  of  Tell-Arad,  and  doubtless  representing  the  site  of 
the  city  then  destroyed.  Hormah  is  noted  as  the  place  to 
which  the  Israelites  were  chased  by  the  Amalekites  and 
Canaanites,  when,  after  their  rebellion  on  the  report  of  the  spies, 
they  obstinately  persisted  in  attacking  the  inhabitants  in  spite 
of  Moses'  emphatic  warning.  The  name  means  "  the  ban,"  or 
"  devoted  to  destruction,"  and  was  given  to  it  after  it  had 
incurred  this  fate,  its  earlier  name  having  been  Zephath.^  That 
it  was  situated  in  the  Negeb,  the  arid  district  south  of  Judaea, 
is  certain,  but  its  actual  site  is  much  disputed.  Some  place  it 
near  the  pass  Es-Sufah  (which  serves  to  recall  the  ancient 
name)  in  the  naked  chalk  hills  that  run  in  a  south-westerly 
direction  from  the  foot  of  the  Dead  Sea,  rising  above  the  level 
of  the  Desert  et-Tih  ;3  others  identify  it  with  Sebaita,  the  ruins 
of  which  lie  in  a  mountain  valley  thirty  miles  south  of  Beer- 
sheba, and  twenty  north  of  Ain  Kadeis  (which  is  possibly 
Kadesh-barnea).  It  will  probably  be  found  more  to  the  east, 
and  nearer  the  south  end  of  the  Dead  Sea.    Adullam  used  to  be 

*  Numb.  xxi.  i  ff.,  and  xiv.  45.  *  Judg.  i.  17. 

3  Robinson,  ii.  591,  616  note. 


112  JOSHUA. 

better  known  by  name  than  identified  in  situation.  When  Joshua 
captured  it,  he  must  have  remembered  that  Hirah,  the  friend 
of  his  forefather  Judah,  came  from  this  place  ;'  we  recognize  it 
as  the  refuge  of  the  persecuted  David  ;  and  late  surveyors  have 
fixed  its  site  at  Aid-el-Mah,  a  strong  position  with  a  good  supply 
of  water  and  practicable  roads  trending  in  different  directions, 
in  the  famous  valley  of  Elah.  This  place  is  ten  miles  north- 
west of  Hebron,  and  lies  half-way  between  Sochoh  and  Keilah  ; 
and  the  hill  of  Adullam  is  pierced  with  many  natural  caverns, 
in  any  of  which  David  might  have  found  a  secure  hiding-place. 
There  are  five  other  towns,  whose  capture  is  not  previously 
mentioned.  Bethel  was  doubtless  taken  during  this  campaign, 
though  the  details  of  the  conquest  are  not  given  in  this  place. 
They  are  narrated  in  a  previous  chapter.  Tappuah,  Hepher, 
Lasheron,  and  Aphek  are  cities  in  what  was  afterwards  known 
as  Judcea,  but  none  of  them  have  been  distinctly  identified. 
This  completes  the  list  of  the  towns  conquered  in  the  southern 
confederacy.  There  are  also  some  connected  with  the  northern 
league  which  have  not  been  previously  mentioned.  Among 
them  are  two  towns  frequently  named  together,  Taanach  and 
Megiddo.  The  former  is  the  modern  Tannuk,  a  village  in  the 
plain  of  Esdraelon,  seven  miles  a  little  south-west  of  Jezreel, 
and  five  miles  south  of  Legio  or  Lejjun,  which  is  usually  taken 
as  the  representative  of  Megiddo.  It  stood  on  a  Tell  in  a 
commanding  situation,  which  gave  it  sufficient  importance  to  be 
commemorated  as  a  strong  fortress  in  the  Egyptian  records  of 
Thothmes  III.  Conder  strives  to  identify  Megiddo  with 
Mujedda,  four  miles  south-west  of  Bethshean,  on  the  eastern 
slope  of  Mount  Gilboa,  but  the  traditionary  site  suits  best  the 
requirements  of  historical  notice.  Standing  in  the  high  road 
by  which  Eastern  armies  marched  on  their  expeditions,  com- 
manding also  one  of  the  few  practicable  passes  that  led  from 
the  north  into  the  hill  country,  the  place  has  been  the  scene  of 
great  events.  In  the  famous  Karnak  inscription  Megiddo, 
under  the  name  of  Magedi,  is  mentioned  as  one  of  the  cities 
taken  by  Thothmes  III.,  after  a  great  battle,  and  it  has  often 
witnessed  stirring  episodes  in  Jewish  history.  From  its  fame  as 
a  battle-field,  St.  John  in  the  Apocalypse  (xvi.  i6)  regards  Har- 
Mageddon,  the  mountain  of  Megiddo,  or  the  mountain  of 
slaughter,  as  the  gathering-place  of  the  hostile  forces  against 
*  Gen.  xxxviii.  i,  20. 


CONQUEST  OF  THE  NORTH.  II3 

Christ,  and  the  scene  of  the  great  final  conflict  that  ushers  in 
the  consummation.  Another  newly-named  town  is  "Jokneam 
of  Carmel,"  or,  on  Carmel,  "  the  fruitful  place,"  the  park,  most 
appropriately  named,  as  it  is  covered  with  forest  and  fruit  trees, 
and  bright  with  flowers.  The  contrast  between  the  rich  perennial 
luxuriance  of  this  hilly  range,  and  the  bleak  limestone  mountains, 
with  their  rough  scrub  and  scanty  pasture,  of  the  rest  of 
Palestine,  has  always  served  to  make  Carmel  the  type  of 
beauty  and  fertility.  It  is  a  range  about  fifteen  miles  long, 
stretching  from  the  mountains  of  Ephraim  in  a  north-westerly 
direction  to  the  sea,  where  it  terminates  in  a  bold  promontory 
of  five  hundred  feet  in  height.  About  twelve  miles  from  this 
promontory  on  the  southern  slope  of  the  hill,  commanding  the 
main  pass  across  the  ridge,  stood  Jokneam,  now  Tell  Kaimum, 
a  corruption  of  the  old  name.^  Among  the  conquered  potentates 
is  one  called  "king  of  the  nations  (Goiim)  in  Gilgal."  The 
expression  reminds  one  of  the  king  who  with  three  others  made 
war  against  the  Canaanites  on  the  plain  of  Sodom  in  the  days 
of  Abraham.  He  was  termed  Tidal  king  of  nations,  though  it 
is  probable  that  in  his  case  Goiim  is  a  misreading  for  Gutium. 
The  Gilgal  here  mentioned  is  not  the  camp  in  the  Jordan  valley, 
but  a  place  now  known  as  Jiljulieh  in  the  plain  of  Sharon, 
fourteen  miles  north-east  of  Joppa  ;  this  seems  to  have  been 
the  head-quarters  of  certain  mixed  and  nomadic  tribes,  here 
called  "  nations,"  which  (to  compare  little  things  to  great)  were 
formed  into  a  kingdom  in  the  same  way  as  the  Austrian  empire 
is  composed  of  a  conglomeration  of  divers  nationalities.  The 
last  place  mentioned  in  this  list  is  Tirzah,  a  city  which  was 
highly  celebrated  in  later  Jewish  history  as  the  capital  of 
Jeroboam  and  his  successors,  and  from  the  beauty  of  its  situa- 
tion was  taken  by  poets  as  the  type  of  all  that  is  lovely.  So 
the  lover  in  Canticles  (vi.  4)  cries  :  "  Thou  art  beautiful,  O  my 
love,  as  Tirzah."  Conder  identifies  it  with  the  modern  Teiasir, 
a  place  containmg  many  rock-hewn  sepulchres,  situated  in  a 
fertile  valley,  eleven  miles  north-east  of  Shechem  ;  Robinson 
and  others  fix  on  Tulluza,  a  place  in  the  same  direction,  but 
nearer  Shechem  ;  Dr.  Geikie  speaking  of  it  as  "  shining  out  on 
a  very  steep  hill  a  little  way  beyond  the  plain."  ^ 

Now  when  Joshua  is  said  (chap.  xi.  23)  to  have  taken  "the 

'  Robinson,  "Later  Bib.  Res."  115. 
»  Ibid.,  302  f.  ;  Geikie,  ii.  221. 

9 


114  JOSHUA. 

whole  land,  according  to  all  that  the  Lord  spake  unto  Moses,** 
the  statement  must  be  modified  by  comparing  it  with  the 
enumeration  (chap.  xiii.  i-6)  of  the  districts  neither  totally 
nor  finally  subdued.  He  had  marched  from  one  end  of  the 
country  to  the  other,  and  for  a  time  checked  all  open  resistance  ; 
but  there  was  still  much  land  left  to  be  possessed,  and  from 
which  the  inhabitants,  if  so  it  might  be,  must  be  driven  by  future 
operations,  as  opportunity  should  offer.  The  complete  trans- 
ference of  possession  was  now  rendered  possible  ;  it  only 
remained  for  Israel  to  follow  up  the  advantage  gained,  and  all 
should  be  theirs.  But  much  remained  to  be  done.  In  the  first 
place,  the  \  o.verful  league  of  the  Philistines,  in  the  south-west, 
in  the  Shephelah  and  the  maritime  plain,  with  their  five  cities, 
Ekron,  Gaza,  Ashdod,  Ascalon^and  Gath,  remained  unsubdued, 
as  we  have  mentioned  above.  They,  indeed,  are  not  named 
among  the  nations  whose  extirpation  was  enjoined,  but  in  the 
division  of  the  land  their  cities  were  assigned  to  Judah,  though 
this  tribe  did  not  succeed  in  holding  possession  of  them. 
Another  people  in  this  locality  which  were  unmolested  were 
the  Geshurites,  an  ancient  tribe,  probably  aboriginals,  who 
dwelt  in  the  desert  between  Philistia  and  Arabia,  connected 
with  whom  were  the  Avites.  The  district  thus  left  undisturbed 
extended  southward  from  Ekron  to  "  Sihor  which  is  before 
Egypt,"  by  which  is  not  meant  the  Nile  (though  the  name, 
"  the  black  river,"  is  often  so  used),  but  to  a  small  stream,  the 
Rhinokorura,  which  is  called  "  the  river  of  Egypt,"  and  now  the 
Wady  el  Arish,  and  which  flows  into  the  sea  at  the  extreme 
southern  border  of  Palestine,  after  draining  the  whole  central 
basin  of  the  Jebel  et-Tih,  the  desert  of  the  Wanderings.  It  is, 
therefore,  a  natural  boundary  of  the  Negeb,  where  it  turns  to 
the  sea  shore,  at  about  thirty  or  forty  miles  from  its  mouth.  In 
the  north  there  were  also  many  unconquered  districts.  Among 
these  was  the  maritime  Phoenicia,  defined  as  "  Mearah  that 
belonged!  to  the  Zidonians  unto  Aphek,"  and  thence  "  to  the 
border  of  the  Amorites,"  that  is,  the  northern  boundary  of 
Bashan,  the  former  kingdom  of  Og.  Tlie  place  called  Mearah 
is  not  mentioned  elsewhere  ;  but  as  the  word  means  '*  cave," 
geographers  have  identified  it  with  a  remarkable  cavern  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Sidon  to  the  north,  where  to  this  day  a  village 
exists  named  Mogheiriyeh,  and  which  in  after  times  was  fortified 
by  the  crusaders,  by  whom   it  was  called   the  cave  of  Tyre, 


CONQUEST  OF  THE  NORTH.  I15 

The  Aphek  mentioned  in  this  connection  is  a  town  on  the 
western  slope  of  Lebanon  at  the  source  of  the  classical  river 
Adonis,  now  the  Nahr  Ibrahim,  which  enters  the  sea  below 
Gebal  (Byblus),  about  fifteen  miles  north  of  Beyrout.  Aphek, 
or  Apheca,  is  still  known  by  the  name  of  Afka.  Here  was  the 
great  seat  of  the  worship  of  Adonis,  called  in  the  East  Tammuz  ; 
and  the  ruins  of  the  temple  raised  in  honour  of  the  Syrian 
Astarte  mourning  for  her  slain  lover  may  still  be  seen.  The 
old  legend  told  how,  on  the  banks  of  the  river,  Adonis  was  killed 
by  a  wild  boar,  how  the  crimson  anemone  sprang  from  his 
blood,  and  how  its  waters  ever  aftei  wards  showed  the  stain  of 
gore.  It  is  a  fact  that  at  certain  seasons  the  river  is  considerably 
coloured  by  the  admixture  of  a  red  earth  brought  down  by 
violent  storms  of  rain.^  Milton  has  alluded  to  the  story  in  his 
"  Paradise  Lost  "  (Book  i.)  : 

"Thammuz  came  next  behind, 
Whose  annual  wound  in  Lebanon  allured 
The  Syrian  damsels  to  lament  his  fate 
In  amorous  ditties,  all  a  summer's  day  ; 
While  smooth  Adonis  from  his  native  rock 
Ran  purple  to  the  sea,  supposed  with  blood 
Of  Thammuz  yearly  wounded." 

This  place  and  "  the  land  of  the  Giblites,"  the  modern  Jebail, 
on  the  coast,  twenty-three  miles  north  of  Beyrout,  were  never 
occupied  by  the  Israelites,  and  the  idolatry  enshrined  there 
spread  over  all  the  country,  infected  the  holy  people,  and  was 
practised  even  in  the  temple  at  Jerusalem.^  Other  unoccupied 
territory  is  defined  as  "  all  Lebanon,  toward  the  sunrising,  from 
Baal-Gad  under  Mount  Hermon  unto  the  entering  in  of 
Hamath."  This  latter  place  was  situated  in  the  upper  part  of 
the  plain  of  Ccele-Syria,  on  the  western  bank  of  the  river 
Orontes  (Nahr  el  Asy),  and  is  now  called  Hamah.  The  Greeks 
knew  it  by  the  name  Epiphaneia,  so  designated  in  honour  of 
the  great  king  of  Syria,  Antiochus  Epiphanes.  The  "entering 
in  "  is  to  be  understood  of  the  approach  to  this  district  between 
Libanus  and  Antihbanus  from  the  south,  or,  as  others  say,  from 
the  west.  It  was  an  important  position  commanding  the  whole 
of  the  Orontes  valley  towards  Antioch.  To  this  point  the  spies 
had  penetrated  ;  David  was  in  alliance   with  King  Toi,  and 

»  Robinson,  "  Later  Bib.  Res."  606  ff. ;  Conder,  "  Heth  and  Moab,"  76  flf. 
»  Ezek.  viii.  13  ft 


Il6  JOSHUA. 

Solomon  actually  subdued  the  territory,  and  extended  the 
kingdom  of  Israel  thither.  But  at  the  present  time  not  only 
this  region  was  not  conquered,  but  also  the  district  reaching 
from  Lebanon  to  Sarepta,  and  the  great  city  Sidon,  retained 
their  independence.  Two  other  little  kingdoms  in  the  north- 
east were  not  conquered,  and  in  spite  of  Israel's  valiant  warfare 
continued  autonomous  even  to  the  time  of  David.  These  were 
Geshur,  a  city  of  the  aborigines,  situated  north  of  Bashan,  and 
Maachah,  an  Aramaean  town  near  the  sources  of  the  Jordan, 
whose  territory  extended  eastward.  As  two  and  a  half  tribes 
had  already  received  an  inheritance  much  larger  than  they 
could  occupy,  the  rest  of  the  community  may  have  thought  that 
they  could  find  room  without  further  molesting  these  inhabitants 
of  the  north. 

The  area  of  Western  Palestine  is  reckoned  at  7,500  square 
miles;  but  from  this  must  be  deducted  at  least  500  for  Philistia 
and  other  unconquered  districts,  which  leaves  7,000  for  the 
occupation  of  the  Israelites.  Much  of  this  was  only  available 
after  serious  effort.  There  was  a  large  extent  of  territory  still 
to  be  subdued,  on  which  indeed  no  attack  had  been  made  ;  and 
of  the  subjugated  country  the  tenure  by  the  invaders  was  very 
partial  and  insecure,  only  to  be  maintained  by  careful  watch 
and  a  ready  seizure  of  every  opportunity  that  might  arise.  The 
way  was  paved  for  the  complete  occupation,  and  circumstances 
were  sure  to  give  occasion  for  the  furtherance  of  Israel's 
dominion.  Wanton  attacks  on  the  chosen  people  were  to  be 
punished  by  the  ban  ;  idolatry  must  be  put  down  at  any  cost ; 
no  treaty,  or  covenant,  or  intermarriage  was  to  be  made  with 
the  Canaanites  ;  the  strife  engendered  by  the  observance  of 
such  strict  and  offensive  rules  would  lead  to  the  necessity  of 
hostile  measures,  which  would  result  in  the  gradual  conquest 
of  the  whole  country.  The  work  of  the  combined  forces  of  all 
Israel  was  over  ;  it  remained  for  each  tribe  to  make  good  its 
footing  in  the  land  allotted  to  it. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

ALLOTMENT  OF  THE  EAST. 

Age  of  Joshua — Principles  of  the  division  of  the  land — Settlement  of 
Reuben — The  Belka — Fertility  of  the  region — Zerka  or  Callirrhoe — 
Heshbon— Medeba — Dibon  ;  the  Moabite  Stone— Nebo — Aroer  ;  the 
Arnon — Kirjathaim — Sibmah — Beth-peor — Zareth-shahar — Character- 
istics and  fate  of  the  Reubenites — Settlement  of  Gad  ;  its  extent  and 
character  —  The  Jarmuk — The  Jabbok — Jebel-Osha — Mahanaim  — 
Penuel — Succoth — Ramoth-Mizpeh— Debir— Jabesh-Gilead — Rabbath- 
Ammon — Beth-aram— Beth-nimrah — Zaphon— Characteristics  and  fate 
of  the  Gadites— Settlement  of  the  half-tribe  of  Manasseh — The  territory 
described  —  Bashan  —  The  Hauran— Argob— Edrei— Ashtaroth-Kar- 
naim  —  Nobah  —  Salcah  —  Golan  —  Havoth-Jair  —  Characteristics  of 
Manasseh. 

The  conquest  of  Palestine  even  in  its  incomplete  state  had 
occupied  some  five  or  seven  years,  and  Joshua  was  now  nearly 
ninety  years  old  ;  it  was  time,  therefore,  that  he  should  carry 
out  the  great  design  which  he  was  appointed  to  execute,  and 
divide  the  land  among  the  tribes.  We  judge  of  Joshua's  age 
by  that  of  his  comrade  Caleb.  The  latter  tells  us  (chap.  xiv. 
7,  lo)  that  he  was  forty  years  old  when  he  was  sent  with  the 
other  spies  to  reconnoitre  the  country,  and  was  eighty-five 
when  he  obtained  his  inheritance  in  Hebron.  The  penal  wan- 
derings in  the  desert  lasted  thirty-eight  years,  so  that  Caleb 
was  seventy-eight  when  the  Israelites  crossed  the  Jordan,  and 
the  campaigns  that  succeeded  consumed,  according  to  his 
account,  seven  years.  Josephus,'  indeed,  allows  only  five  years 
for  the  duration  of  the  wars,  but  his  numbers  are  seldom 
altogether  trustworthy  ;  on  the  other  hand,  granting  that  the 
Jewish  historian  had  the  use  of  documents  unknown  to  us, 
^  "Ant."  V.  I.  19. 


iiS 


JOSHUA. 


Caleb  may  have  used  round  numbers  which  are  not  to  be 
closely  pressed.  Joshua  was  one  hundred  and  ten  when  he 
died,  but  how  long  his  rule  lasted  we  are  nowhere  told. 
Josephus '  asserts  that  he  was  for  forty  years  associated  with 
Moses,  learning  his  high  duties,  and  after  his  master's  death 
governed  Israel  for  twenty-five  years.  This  would  make  him 
forty-five  at  the  time  of  the  Exodus.  Others  ==  allow  thirty 
years  for  his  government.  One  of  these  periods  is  doubtless 
correct,  and  he  must  have  lived  in  retirement  after  the  allot- 
ment of  the  tribes  some  twenty  or  twenty-five  years. 

The  division  of  the  land  had  long  ago  been  arranged  by 
Moses,  who  had  also  carefully  defined  the  limits  of  the  territory 
to  be  acquired,  which  he  knew  partly  from  his  own  observation, 
and  partly  from  the  reports  of  others.  In  the  last  days  of  his 
life  he  had  nominated  princes  from  the  ten  tribes  (omitting 
Reuben  and  Gad,  who  had  already  received  their  possessions) 
who  should  preside  over  the  allotment.^  None  of  them  save 
Caleb  is  otherwise  known  to  fame.  The  particular  duty  of  these 
chieftains  was  to  determine  the  limits  and  dimensions  of  the 
portion  which  fell  to  each  tribe.  The  situation  of  these  portions 
they  settled  by  lot,  thus  leaving  the  disposal  to  Divine  Provi- 
dence, and  avoiding  all  occasions  for  heart-burning,  envy,  or 
misunderstanding.  And  certainly  this  result  seems  to  have  been 
obtained,  as  no  murmuring  or  discontent  ever  arose,  and  no 
attempt  was  ever  made  to  disturb  existing  arrangements,  though 
particular  tribes  may  at  times  have  endeavoured  to  increase 
their  territory  at  the  expense  of  heathen  enemies.  The  popu- 
lation which  had  to  be  distributed  amounted  to  two  millions  ; 
and,  if  we  consider  the  area  at  disposal  to  be  7,000  square 
miles,  they  would  be  placed  at  the  rate  of  285  to  the  mile.  In 
Belgium  the  proportion  is  330,  and  in  Holland  460  to  the  square 
mile.  The  space  was  ample.  The  wants  of  Eastern  peoples 
are  few,  their  habits  simple,  their  houses  small  and  furnished 
only  with  the  barest  necessaries.  Then  the  system  of  terrace 
cultivation  practised  universally  more  than  doubled  the  area  of 
productive  soil,  and  each  man's  inheritance  was  sufficient  to 
provide  its  owner  with  food  and  clothing.  There  is  a  connection, 
sometimes  remote,  sometimes  palpable,  between  the  blessings 

»  "Ant."  V.  I.  29. 

2  Euseb.    "  Prasp.  Ev."   x.  14,  quoted    in   "Speaker's  Commentary," 
"Joshua,"  p.  7.  3  Numb,  xxxiv. 


ALLOTMENT  OF  THE  EAST-  II9 

bestowed  on  the  tribes  or  their  representatives  by  Jacob  and 
Moses,  and  the  positions  which  they  occupied  in  the  Land  of 
Promise-^  The  fortunes  of  his  descendants  adumbrated  by 
the  dying  patriarch,  and  the  glory  and  greatness  of  the  ideal 
Israel  celebrated  by  the  last  v/ords  of  the  lav/giver,  are  modified 
and  characterized  by  their  material  environments.  This  aspect 
of  the  two  utterances  in  question  is  not  affected  by  the  doubts 
■concerning  their  dates  excited  by  critics.  Even  if  they,  or 
either  of  them,  can  be  attributed  to  the  time  of  David,  or  even 
4o  a  later  period  (which  we  by  no  means  admit),  they  may  still 
he  used  as  intimating  the  idiosyncrasies,  characteristics,  and 
-destinies  of  the  tribes  in  relation  to  the  districts  which  they 
inherited.  Further,  it  is  to  be  noted  that  the  order  and  the 
relative  dignity  of  the  tribes,  which  were  maintained  in  their 
inarches  through  the  desert,  and  in  their  military  expeditions, 
•controlled  also  the  extent,  and  in  some  degree  the  position,  of 
iheir  possessions. 

Reul^en,  Gad,  and  half  the  tribe  of  Manasseh  had  already,  as 
■we  have  seen,  received  their  inheritance  on  the  east  of  Jordan 
in  a  general  way  ;  it  remained  now  for  Joshua  to  assign  exact 
limits  to  the  three  portions.  Preferring  the  care  of  flocks  and 
herds  to  the  tillage  of  the  soil,  and  being  the  only  clans  which 
possessed  a  large  stock  of  cattle,  these  two  and  a  half  tribes 
found  in  the  land  of  Gilead,  as  it  was  vaguely  called,  with  its 
arich  pasturage  and  its  many  streams,  a  district  admirably 
suited  to  their  occupation.  The  first  to  have  its  inheritance 
accurately  defined  was  the  tribe  of  Reuben.  Representing  the 
firstborn  son  of  Jacob  this  tribe  had  once  been  very  powerful, 
but  of  late  years  it  had  steadily  declined  in  numbers,  and  at 
4he  time  of  the  allotment  was  one  of  the  v.'^eakest.  But  it  had 
aiever  lost  its  love  for  pastoral  pursuits  which  had  engaged  it  in 
Egypt,  when  ""its  trade  was  about  cattle."  The  portion  now 
assigned  to  it  was  the  most  southern  district  of  the  Eastern 
region,  bounded  on  the  north  by  Heshbon  and  its  wady,  a  city 
and  territory  a  little  above  the  upper  end  of  the  Dead  Sea,  and 
just  touching  the  ford  of  the  Jordan,  on  the  south  by  the  Arnon, 
south  of  which  the  Israelites  did  not  enlarge  their  conquests, 
and  on  the  west  by  the  Dead  Sea  ;  on  the  east  the  inheritance 
extended  vaguely  towards  those  illimitable  wastes  which  reach 
to  the  Euphrates.  These  wastes  are  bounded  on  the  west 
'  Gen.  ilix.  :  Deut.  juodiL 


I20  JOSHITA^ 

by  the  mountains  of  Moab,  which  bore  the  name  o!  Abarim 
("regions  beyond  "),  and  are  plainly  seen  from  Jerusalem 
over  the  south  shoulder  of  Olivet.  The  district  thus  assigned 
was  called  the  Mishor/  the  Plain  country^  in  contrast  to  the 
wooded  heights  and  valleys  of  Gilead,  and  the  rocky  soil  of 
the  west  ;  it  is  now  known  as  Belka,  a  region  of  wonderful 
fertility,  of  which  Tristram  writes,^  speaking  of  the  view  from  a 
hill  which  he  supposes  to  be  Pisgah  :.  "  To  the  eastward,  as  we 
turned  round,  the  ridge  seemed  gently  ta  slope  for  two  or 
three  miles,  when  a  few  small  ruin-clad  '  tells/  or  hillocks,  broke 
the  monotony  of  the  outline  ^  and  then,  sweeping  forth,  rolled 
in  one  vast  unbroken  expanse  the  goodly  Belka — one  boundless 
plain,  stretching  far  inta  Arabia,  till  lost  in  th^e  horizon — one 
waving  ocean  of  corn  and  grass.  Well  may  the  Arabs  boast, 
'Thou  canst  not  find  a  country  like  the  Belka.'  Well  may  suck 
illimitable  wealth  of  soil  pour  forth  its  teeming  myriads  of  flocks 
and  herds,  the  riches  of  that  mighty  sheep-master,  the  king 
of  Moab  of  old,3  as  to-day  of  the  Anezi  and  the  Beni  Sakk'r.'^ 
"  For  pastoral  and  agricultural  purposes  the  tribe  of  Reuben? 
occupied  the  most  favoured  region  in  Palestine.  The  whole 
of  their  territory  was  a  vast  alluvial  deposit  of  the  richest 
character,  out  of  which  rise  the  knolls  and  ridges  on  which  the 
old  cities  stood,  and  which  are  to- this  day  abundantly  supplied 
with  the  reservoirs  and  cisterns  which  had  been  hewn  in  thent 
in  old  time."  *'  Had  the  country  been  without  these  excres- 
cences of  rock,  affording  unlimited  facilities  for  cistern  excava- 
tion and  for  the  storing  of  water  supplies,  it  is  utterly  impossible 
that  it  could  ever  have  sustained  as  it  has  done  a  vast  resident 
and  agricultural  population."''' 

One  notable  feature  in  this  region  is  the  ravine  of  the  Zerka 
M'Ain  or  Callirrhoe,  which  separates  it  into  two  not  very  un- 
equal divisions.  This  has  been  identified  with  Nahahel,  "the 
valley,  or,  torrent  of  God,"  which  is  mentioned  (Numb,  xxi,  19) 
as  a  station  of  the  Israelites,  and  whose  name  may  recall  some 
Providential  occui-rence  that  here  occurred  to  the  wanderers,  or 
may  have  reference  to  the  Baal-worship  of  the  district,  or  may 
be  only  the  usual  hyperbolical  mode  of  expressing  "a  great^ 
remarkable  valley."     And  it  deserves  the  appellation.     The 

'  Deut.  iii.  10 ;  Josh.  xiii.  9 ;  Jer.  xlviii.  21. 

"■  •*  Land  of  Israel,"  537.  3'  2  Kings  iii.  4. 

♦  Oliphant,  "  Land  of  GUead,"  289  :  Tristram..  "  Land  of  Moab/'  193^. 


ALLOTMENT  OF  THE  EAST.  121 

gorge  itself  towards  its  eastern  extremity  is  some  1,700  feet 
deep,  thence  descending  another  1,600  feet  to  the  Dead  Sea. 
From  its  sides  issue  numerous  hot  springs  running  in  channels 
encrusted  with  sulphur,  falling  in  miniature  cascades  amid  luxu- 
riant foliage,  to  join  at  length  in  the  main  stream  which  fills  the 
centre  of  the  wady.  "Tawny  cliffs  of  limestone  capped  with 
chalk,"  says  Captain  Conder,^  "rise  on  the  north,  and  are  seamed 
with  gullies,  where  the  marl  has  been  washed  down  like  snow 
streaks  left  in  summer,  beneath  the  cliffs.  On  the  south  is  a 
steep  brown  precipice  with  an  undercliff  of  marl,  and  a  plateau 
stretching  thence  to  another  and  yet  another  ridge  ;  beyond  and 
above  this  plateau  (on  which  are  the  stone  heaps  of  Machaerus) 
appeared  the  shining  waters  of  the  lake  and  its  western  cliffs, 
fading  away  into  a  blue  mist  on  the  south.  But  the  central 
feature  of  this  ghastly  scene  of  utterly  barren  wilderness  was 
the  great  black  bastion  projecting  from  its  southern  cliff,  and 
almost  blocking  the  gorge— an  outbreak  of  basalt  which  shows 
like  a  dark  river  in  the  valley  of  Callirrhoe,  as  seen  from  the 
west  side  of  the  Dead  Sea.  It  resembles  the  high  spoil-heaps 
of  an  English  coal  mine,  and  bears  witness  to  the  volcanic 
action  which  has  made  the  springs  in  this  gorge  of  boiling  heat, 
and  which  no  doubt  accompanied  the  sudden  depression  of  the 
enormous  fault  now  known  as  the  Jordan  valley.  It  took  a  full 
hour  to  reach  the  bottom  of  the  gorge,  and  the  scene  beneath 
was  wonderful  beyond  description.  On  the  south,  black  basalt, 
brown  limestone,  gleaming  marl.  On  the  north,  sandstone  cliffs 
of  all  colours,  from  pale  yellow  to  pinkish  purple.  In  the  valley 
itself  the  brilliant  green  of  palm  clumps,  rejoicing  in  the  heat 
and  in  the  sandy  soil.  ...  Of  all  scenes  in  Syria,  there  is  none 
which  so  dwells  on  my  memory  as  does  this  awful  gorge,  .  .  . 
the  fair  flowing  stream  which  Herod  sought  below  the  gloomy 
prison  of  John  the  Baptist  at  Machaerus— the  dread  chasm  where 
the  Bedawin  still  offer  sacrifices  to  the  desert  spirits,  and  still 
bathe  with  full  faith  in  the  healing  powers  of  the  spring." 

The  fixed  habitations  of  Reuben  and  the  other  Eastern  tribes 
were  of  two  kinds.  The  new  settlers  restored  and  fortified  the 
conquered  cities,  and  therein  housed  their  families.  Besides 
these  fortresses,  they  had  cattle-villages  and  farm  premises,  not 
enclosed  with  walls,  and  not  connected  with  any  large  towns. 
These  were  scattered  over  the  country  in  favourable  situations, 
*  "Heth  and  Moab,"  145  ff. 


122  JOSHUA. 

but  could  be  occupied  only  in  peaceful  districts  or  at  times 
when  the  raids  of  marauders  were  not  expected. 

Of  the  cities  in  this  territory  some  are  noteworthy.  Heshbon, 
which  afterwards  appertained  to  Gad,  and  became  a  Levitical 
city,  has  had  a  varied  history,  which  can  be  traced  to-day  in 
the  confused  ruins  which  occupy  its  site.  Cyclopean  stones 
which  mark  the  era  of  the  gigantic  Emim  who  once  inhabited 
it,  Phoenician  and  Jewish  masonry,  Roman,  Grecian,  Saracenic 
architecture,  testify  to  the  different  peoples  who  have  at  times 
possessed  the  spot.  At  an  early  period  it  had  belonged  to  the 
Moabites,  but  when  Moses  seized  it,  it  was  held  by  Amorites 
under  their  king,  Sihon,  who  was  defeated  by  the  Israelites  at 
Jahaza,  a  place  to  the  north-east  of  Heshbon,  between  that  city 
and  Elealeh,  now  El  Al,  noted  like  Heshbon  for  its  great 
central  mound.  To  the  south  of  these  towns,  and  lying  on  the 
great  road  through  Moab,  stands  Medeba  (Madiyabah)  towards 
the  centre  of  the  Mishor,  on  a  low  hill  about  a  mile  and  a  half 
in  circumference.  It  was  strongly  fortified  and  well  supplied 
with  water,  as  is  evident  from  the  remains  of  a  great  reservoir 
one  hundred  and  twenty  yards  square.  Though  the  Reubenites 
occupied  the  surrounding  plain,  it  is  very  doubtful  whether  they 
ever  got  possession  of  the  city  itself.  No  mention  is  made  of 
it  in  the  list  of  their  towns.  Closely  connected  with  Medeba 
is  Dibon,  or,  as  it  was  afterwards  called  from  its  occupation 
by  Gadites,  Dibon-Gad.  This  place  has  been  identified  with 
Dhiban,  the  extensive  ruins  of  which  cover  two  rounded  hills 
three  or  four  miles  north  of  the  Arnon.  It  has  become  cele- 
brated lately  by  the  discovery  there  of  the  so-called  Moabite 
stone  in  the  year  1869.  This  relic,  says  Professor  Sayce,^  was 
a  stone  of  black  basalt,  four  feet  high  and  two  broad,  containing 
an  inscription  in  Phoenician  characters.  It  has  been  broken  to 
pieces,  and  the  fragments  were  distributed  as  charms  among 
the  Arab  tribe  into  whose  possession  it  came,  but  most  of  these 
have  been  recovered,  and  the  monument  may  be  seen  in  a 
tolerably  complete  state  in  the  Museum  of  the  Louvre  at  Paris. 
The  block  was  found  near  the  gateway  within  the  old  city  walls, 
having  been  probably  removed  from  its  original  position  and 
used  in  some  more  recent  work,  whence  it  was  dislodged  not 
many  years  before  its  discovery.      The  inscription  when  de- 

^  "Fresh  Light  from  the  Monuments,"  76  flf.  ;  Tristram,  "Land  of 
Moab,"  134. 


ALLOTMENT  OF  THE   EAST.  I23 

ciphered  proved  to  be  of  the  greatest  interest.  The  letters  are 
written  in  the  earliest  form  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet,  of  which 
only  one  or  two  examples  have  elsewhere  been  found.  The 
d  )cument  is  a  record  of  Mesha,  king  of  Moab  about  B.C.  897, 
telling  how  he  revolted  successfully  against  Israel,  and  avenged 
himself  on  the  former  oppressors  of  his  country.  We  herein 
learn  that  the  language  of  Moab  differed  from  that  of  the 
Israelites  no  more  than  is  the  case  with  the  local  dialects  of  a 
country ;  that  Chemosh  the  national  god  had  come  to  be  re- 
garded as  the  supreme,  if  not  the  only,  object  of  worship  ;  that 
Yahveh,  the  covenant  name  of  the  God  of  Israel,  was  familiar 
to  surrounding  nations,  the  superstition  which  prevented  the 
Jews  from  pronouncing  it  having  not  yet  prevailed  ;  and  that 
the  worship  of  the  high  places,  contrary  as  it  was  to  the  law, 
was  yet  practised  and  performed  in  His  name. 

Mesha  mentions  the  capture  of  two  other  Reubenite  towns, 
Nebo  and  Baal-Meon,  the  names  of  which,  owing  to  their 
idolatrous  character,  the  Hebrew  settlers  had  endeavoured,  but 
unsuccessfully,  to  change.  Nebo  is  the  name  assigned  to  the 
flat  summit  and  cairn  of  Mount  Pisgah,  and  possibly  of  a  town 
in  its  immediate  vicinity.  Though  there  are  four  or  five  emi- 
nences which  contest  the  honour  of  being  the  one  from  which 
Moses  bent  his  longing  glance  over  the  desired  land  which  he 
was  not  permitted  to  enter,  they  are  all  placed  within  a  short 
distance  of  one  another,  just  south  of  the  Wady  Hesban. 
They  are  in  fact  the  northern  termination  of  the  range  Abarim, 
the  rocky  wall  that  descends  in  steps  to  the  plain  in  which 
sleeps  the  Dead  Sea.  The  late  discovery  of  dolmens  and  stone 
circles  on  these  eminences  shows  that  they  were  centres  of 
worship  in  prehistoric  times,  and  that  Balak's  altars  were 
erected  on  spots  consecrated  by  immemorial  usage.  The  most 
westerly  of  these  summits,  and  the  one  which  commands  the 
widest  prospect,  bears  the  name  of  Siaghah,  which  is  supposed 
to  be  a  corruption  of  the  word  Seath,  the  Talmudic  representative 
of  Nebo.^  Another  of  the  Reubenite  towns  was  Aroer,  now 
Arair,  situated  in  a  commanding  position  on  the  northern  edge 
of  the  gorge  of  the  Arnon,  where  the  Roman  road  crosses  the 
river  some  fifteen  miles  from  its  mouth.  The  Arnon  defile  is 
now  known  as  the  Wady  el  Mojeb  ;  it  is  about  three  miles 

»  Merrill,  "  East  of  the  Jordan,"  243  ff.  ;  Conder,   "  Heth  and  Moab," 
129. 


124  JOSHUA. 

wide  at  the  spot  where  the  ruins  of  Arair  are  found,  and  2,150 
feet  deep.  Mesha  is  proud  to  mention  that  he  made  a  road 
here  over  the  Arnon,  and  doubtless  the  Roman  viaduct,  of 
which  remains  are  still  to  be  seen,  was  constructed  on  the  lines 
of  the  old  Moabite  work.  From  the  upper  plateau  the  rift 
does  not  show  till  one  comes  suddenly  upon  the  precipitous 
descent,  the  southern  edge,  which  is  of  basaltic  formation,  being 
200  feet  higher  than  the  northern,  which  is  wholly  hmestone. 
Down  this  precipice  a  chariot  road  had  been  made  in  zig-zag, 
crossing  the  river  by  a  bridge  at  the  bottom,  and  rising  in  a 
similar  fashion  up  the  opposite  side  of  the  ravine,  Above  the 
bridge  are  some  remains  which  may  possibly  be  "the  city  in  the 
midst  of  the  river"  (Josh.  xiii.  16),  by  which  cannot  be  meant 
Ar  of  Moab,  as  the  Reubenites  had  no  possession  south  of  the 
Arnon.^  Of  the  other  cities  appertaining  to  Reuben  we  do  not 
hear  much.  There  was  Kirjathaim  (now  Kureiyat),  on  the 
southern  slope  of  Attarus  below  Callirrhoe,  whose  dual-formed 
name  recalls  the  curious  feature,  so  common  in  this  district,  of  a 
city  built  on  twin  hills  surrounded  by  one  common  wall.  There 
was  Sibmah,  now  Sumieh,  close  to  Heshbon,  over  whose  wasted 
vineyards  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah^  lament  in  their  denunciations 
of  Moab,  and  whose  rock-cut  winepresses  attest  to  this  day  the 
former  fertility.  There  was  Bethpeor,  situated  on  the  hills  near 
the  awful  gorge  of  the  Callirrhoe,  in  whose  neighbourhood  the 
body  of  the  great  lawgiver  found  its  secret  grave.  And  there 
was  Zareth-shahar,  a  place  utterly  unknown  to  fame,  but  re- 
covered in  the  ruins  of  Zara,  which  are  noteworthy  as  containing 
probably  the  only  surviving  relic  of  the  early  buildings  of  the 
Reubenites.3  These  stand  in  a  little  recess  which  forms  an 
oasis  on  the  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea  about  three  miles  below  the 
outlet  of  Callirrhoe.  The  Hebrew  name  means  "splendour  of 
the  dawn,"  and  Mr.  Tristram's  description  of  the  locality  serves 
to  explain  the  appellation.  "The  surrounding  mountain  cres- 
cent," he  says,  "  is  beautiful  both  in  form  and  colour.  The 
sandstone,  gilded  by  the  sun,  presents  the  most  gorgeous 
colouring,  red  predominating,  but  white,  yellow,  and  brown 
patches  and  streaks  abound."  Concealed,  as  it  were,  in  this 
remote  nook,  the  remains  of  the  ancient  edifices  have  been 
but  little  molested  by  the  hand  of  man  or  employed  in  the 

*  Tristram,  "  Land  of  Moab,"  125  ff.  -  Isa.  xvi.  8,  g  ;  Jer.  xlviii.  32. 

3  Tristram,  "  Land  of  Moab,"  281  ff. 


ALLOTMENT  OF  THE  EAST,  5  25 

construction  of  later  works  on  the  spot  itself;  so  that  it  requires 
but  a  feeble  effort  of  imagination  to  people  this  quiet  corner 
with  members  of  the  semi-nomad  tribe,  v^^hich  raised  these 
walls  and  houses  for  the  shelter  of  their  wives  and  families, 
while  the  men  tended  the  cattle  or  pursued  their  warlike 
expeditions. 

Settled  in  this  rich  district,  and  becoming  engrossed  m 
pastoral  pursuits,  the  tribe  of  Reuben  gradually  isolated  itself 
from  its  western  brethren,  and  sank  into  comparative  insigni- 
ficance. Jacob  had  predicted  :  "  Unstable  as  water,  thou  shall 
not  have  the  excellency  "  ;  the  birthright  naturally  appertaining 
to  the  first-born  had  long  been  forfeited,  and  it  is  noted  that 
tio  leader^  judge,  or  prophet  ever  arose  from  this  tribe.  The 
sentence  of  Moses '  is  expressed  in  ambiguous  terras,  yet  seems 
to  be  best  rendered  : 

*•  Let  Reuben  live  and  not  die. 
Yet  let  his  men  be  few." 

Losing  their  patriotic  spirit,  thinking  only  of  their  own  selfish 
interests,  the  Reubenites  could  not  be  aroused  to  take  part  in 
national  movements  ;  they  could  hear  unmoved  of  the  oppres- 
sion of  their  brethren  ;  they  cared  more  for  the  welfare  of  their 
flocks  and  herds  than  of  their  fellow-countrymen.  Requiring 
continually  wider  range  for  their  subsistence,  not  confined  to 
one  spot  by  agricultural  considerations,  and  in  their  unabated 
love  of  a  nomadic  life  pushing  further  and  further  eastwards 
where  they  might  find  fresh  pastures,  they  gradually  lost 
possession  of  much  of  their  original  inheritance,  cared  less  and 
less  for  a  settled  home,  degenerated  into  a  mere  desert  horde, 
or  became  intermixed  with  the  Moabites,  and^ faded  out  of 
Jewish  history. 

Immediately  to  the  north  of  Reuben  came  the  inheritance  of 
Gad.  These  two  tribes,  together  with  Simeon,  during  the 
march  in  the  desert,  had  been  posted  on  the  south  of  the 
tabernacle  ;  and  now  the  two  in  the  allotment  of  land  had  to 
guard  the  eastern  frontier.  The  territory  of  Gad,  starting  from 
Heshbon,  extended  northwards  towards  the  Sea  of  Galilee  unto 
the  river  Jarmuk,  which  falls  into  the  Jordan  four  miles  below 
the  lake  ;  on  the  west,  of  course,  it  was  bounded  by  the  Jordan 
valley  ;  how  far  it  spread  to  the  east  is  exactly  determined,  as 
I  Deut.  xxxiii.  6. 


126  JOSHUA 

"unto  Aroer  that  faces  Rabbah,"  i.e.,  near  the  southern  s<ynrce 
of  the  Jabbok,  a  line  being  drawn  from  some  unascertained 
spot  on  the  north-east  border  to  meet  that  river.     We  can  say 
generally  that  it  occupied  the  centre  of  Israel's  eastern  posses- 
sions, comprising  a  great  portion  of  the  Land  of  Gilead  properly 
so  called,  and  that  half  of  the  Ammonite  territory  which  had 
been  taken  from  that  people  by  Sihon,  since  the  Israelites  were 
debarred   from    attacking   the   Ammonites  by   the  claims  of 
kindred.^     The  area  is  reckoned  at  1,300  square  miles  ;  btst  the 
extent  varied  at  times  according  to  the  power  and  activity  «rf 
the  Gadites.     It  was  one  of  the  fairest  parts  of  this  beautiful 
region.     Looking  upon  it  across  the  Jordan  from  the  west,  one 
receives  a  very  erroneous  impression  of  its  character  and  capa- 
bilities.    Far  from  being,  as  it  seems,  a  continuous  wall   of 
mountains  rising  abruptly  from  the  Ghor  and  presenting  no 
softer  features,  the  horizontal  outline  is  broken  in  all  directions 
by  valleys  and  ravines,  clothed  with  oaks,  oleanders,  and  ever- 
green shrubs  in  richest  luxuriance.     And  when  the  summit  of 
these  hills-  is  reached  a  very  different  prospect  meets  the  eye. 
Here  is  a  high  table   land,  extending  for  miles  towards  the 
Arabian  Desert,  and  in  many  places  less  than  a  hundred  feet 
above  the  plain  ;  here  are  undulating  downs  and  picturesque 
glens,  clothed  with  the  richest  grass  ;  here  are  grand  forests 
abounding  in  magnificent  trees,  sycamore,  beech,  ikx,  terebinth, 
and  fig,  with  dark  pines  on  the  heights.     The  healthiness  of 
this   district   is   proverbial ;    it    was    called    by    the   Romans 
Palaestina   Salutaris ;    and    to    this    day    the    inhabitants    of 
Damascus  and  other  Syrian  towns  flock  hither  to  escape  local 
epidemics."^    These  downs  are  divided   by  three  deep  defiles 
which  drain  them  into  the  Jordan.     The  most  northerly  is  the 
Jarmuk,   now   called    Menadireh    and   formerly    Hieromax,   a 
stream  of  some  size,  being  larger  than  the  Jordan  above  Gen- 
nesareth,    and    draining    the    Hauran    region.     Mr.    Merrill  ^ 
speaks  of  this  wady  thus  :  "  As  we  began  to  v/ind  up  the  gorge 
of  the  river,  new  scenes  of  grandeur  burst  upon  us  at  every 
turn.     One  great  bend  in  the  stream  was  a  mile  in  extent,  and 
we  could  see  the  entire  distance  at  a  single  glance — the  water 
dashing  at  the  bottom  of  the  perpendicular  cliff  which  rose 
three  hundred  feet  above  it,  and  still  above  that  could  be  traced 

'  Der'   ii.  19.  =^  Oliphant,  "  Land  of  Gilead,"  102. 

3    "  East  of  the  Jordan,    141 


ALLOTMENT  OF  THE  EAST.  \7.^ 

the  narrow  path  along  which  we  were  to  go.  A  singular  effect, 
by  contrast,  was  presented  by  the  rock  formation,  as  exposed 
on  the  face  of  the  cliff  just  referred  to,  where  a  stratum,  of  fifty 
or  one  hundred  feet  in  thickness,  of  pure  white  limestone  was 
overlaid  by  one  of  black  basalt,  for  a  hundred  feet  more.  .  .  . 
The  valley  is  formed  of  a  succession  of  wild  gorges,  high 
mountains  on  either  side,  perpendicular  chffs,  bold,  rugged 
headlands  projecting  into  the  valley,  and  small,  quiet  plains,  far 
down  out  of  the  reach  of  mountain  storms,  fertile,  sheltered,  and 
peaceful."  Further  up  the  wady  are  the  celebrated  hot  springs 
known  to  the  Romans,  called  now  El  Hamma.  The  centre 
defile  of  the  district  is  formed  by  the  river  Jabbok,  or  Zerka, 
which  exhibits  a  curious  course,  making  three-fourths  of  a  circle. 
Rising  in  the  south-east  of  Gilead,  it  sweeps  far  away  towards 
the  sunrising  and  the  desert,  makes  a  bold  bend  to  the  north, 
then  doubles  back  upon  itself,  forcing  its  way  through  the 
mountains,  and  after  a  course  of  some  seventy  miles  enters  the 
Jordan  something  less  than  half  way  between  the  Dead  Sea  and 
Gennesareth.  Part  of  the  district  embraced  by  this  river  is  now 
called  El  Beja,  and  is  famed  for  its  encircling  forests  of  oak 
and  other  trees,  which,  attracting  the  rainfall,  make  this  side  of 
the  country  such  a  wonderful  contrast  to  the  bare  hills  of  the 
west.  The  fields  and  woods  are  never  parched  and  withered  ; 
the  streams  which  meander  through  every  valley  are  perennial, 
though,  as  in  all  limestone  countries,  wont  sometimes  to  dis- 
appear underground  for  a  time  ;  and  the  whole  vegetation  has 
a  look  of  health  and  vigour  which  proves  the  strength  of  the 
soil  and  the  favourable  nature  of  the  climate.  The  average 
level  of  the  province  of  Gad  is  about  2,000  feet  above  the  sea  ; 
but  there  is  one  point  which  attains  3,600.  This  is  Jebel  Osha, 
a  ridge  in  the  north-western  side  of  the  Beja,  just  below  the 
Jabbok,  and  so  called  in  memory  of  Joshua,  or,  as  the 
Samaritans  say,  of  the  prophet  Hosea,  who  is  supposed  to  be 
buried  here,  though  we  know  nothing  in  his  history  which 
would  connect  him  with  this  locality.  The  hill  commands  one 
of  the  finest  prospects  in  all  the  eastern  territory.  From 
Hermon  and  Tabor  on  the  north,  all  along  the  Jordan  valley, 
even  unto  the  lower  end  of  the  Dead  Sea,  the  sated  eye  can 
range.  On  the  west  appear  Olivet,  Neby  Samwil,  the  Samaritan 
mountains,  Ebal  and  Gerizim,  the  Gilboa  chain,  the  hills  about 
Nazareth,  Tabor,  Bethshean.     *' Seen  in  the  shifting  lights  of 


X28  JOSHUA. 

an  April  day,"  says  Captain  Conder,^  "  this  wide  view  of 
mountain  and  valley  which  opens  as  the  traveller  reaches  the 
edge  of  the  cliff  is  wonderfully  picturesque  and  suggestive.  The 
distant  ranges,  faint  and  blue  in  the  afternoon  shade,  the  strange 
peaks  of  the  marl  at  Sartaba  [on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river] 
and  near  Jericho,  the  dark  line  of  the  Jordan,  the  green  corn  in 
its  valley,  the  warm  hues  of  the  sandstone,  the  wild-broom  and 
cytizus,  the  thyme  and  rock-roses,  the  thorny  bell'an  [a  kind  of 
furze],  and  bushes  of  arbutus  and  laurestinus,  which  form  the 
foreground  on  this  breezy  height,  combine  to  produce  a  picture 
not  unlike  one  in  the  highlands  of  Scotland,  and  remarkably 
unsuggestive  of  the  burning  east."  Passing  from  the  Jordan 
valley  to  this  height,  one  changes  a  tropical  climate  with  its 
rank  vegetation  for  an  Alpine  region  of  pines  and  comparative 
winter. 

The  picture  of  the  scenery  of  Gilead  would  not  be  complete 
without  a  glance  at  its  flowers  and  birds.  Captain  Conder ' 
tells  us  that  he  found  many  old  English  favourites  in  this 
distant  region  as  well  as  many  proper  to  the  clime.  He 
mentions  clover,  ragged-robin,  clematis,  lupin,  anemone,  corn- 
flower, borage,  tulip,  buttercup,  vetch,  cyclamen,  marigold,  also 
orchids,  cistus,  phlox,  star  of  Bethlehem,  broom,  antirrhinum, 
honeysuckle,  as  familiar  plants.  Among  the  trees  and  shrubs, 
there  is  the  styrax,  the  mock,  orange  with  its  mass  of  white 
flowers  and  sweet  periume,  the  lentisk  akin  to  the  Balm  of 
Gilead,  the  arbutus,  and  laurestinus.  The  glades  are  vocal  with 
the  note  of  the  nightingale  and  blackbird,  the  twitter  of  the 
tomtit,  and  many  another  little  favourite-  Here  are  seen  the 
jay,  the  hoopoe,  the  gorgeous  roller  with  its  azure  wings,  the 
bee-eater,  besides  vultures,  eagles,  cuckoos,  and  the  other  birds 
common  to  Syria. 

Certain  noteworthy  cities  fell  to  the  lot  of  Gad,  some  of 
previous  importance,  and  others  whose  fame  is  of  later  origin. 
One  of  these  places  is  Mahanaim,  *'  Two  Camps,"  where  the 
patriarch  Jacob  saw  the  vision  of  the  host  of  God,  and  near  to 
which  he  was  met  by  his  brother  Esau.     It  seems  to  have  lain 

*  "  Heth  and  Moab,"  i8i  ;  Merrill,  194,  279.  Captain  Conder  denies 
that  Hermon  and  the  Dead  Sea  can  be  seen  from  Jebel  Osha.  Mr.  Merrill 
seems  to  have  been  more  fortunate,  and  deems  that  this  hill  may  well  have 
been  the  spot  whence  Moses  took  his  view  of  the  Promised  Land. 

»  "Heth  and  Moab,"  i38. 


ALLOTMENT  OF  THE  EAST.  1 29 

north  of  the  Jabbok  towards  the  east,  but  has  not  hitherto  been 
satisfactorily   identified.^     Closely   connected  with  this  site  is 
Penuel,  "  Face  of  God,"  where  Jacob  wrestled  with  the  angel. 
Reasoning  from  the  analogy  of  a  similar  designation  being 
applied  by  the  Phoenicians  to  a  magnificent  promontory  on  the 
Mountain  of  light,  fourteen  miles  south  of  Tripoli,  and  the  fact 
that  the  name  Funeh  (a  possible  corruption   of   Phanuel)    is 
affixed  to  a  valley  descending  from  the  mountain  to  the  Jabbok, 
Captain  Conder  is  inclined  to  see  in  Jebel  Osha  the  ridge  of  the 
patriarchal  Penuel.    Succoth,  whither  Jacob  journeyed  after  his 
interview  with  his  brother,  was  situated  in  the  Jordan  valley  a 
little  north  of  the  mouth  of  the  Jabbok.     In  the  Talmud  this 
place  is  called  Tarala  or  Darala,  a  name  which  is  recognized  in 
the  designation  Deir  Alia  affixed  to  a  conspicuous  mound  in  the 
plain.^    As  the  Gadites  were  doubtless  well  read  in  the  history 
of  their  forefathers,  what  a  host  of  memories  must  these  old- 
world  places  have  aroused  !      With  what  interest  must  they 
have  beheld  scenes  endeared  by  their  connection  with  the  hves 
of  those  from  whom  they  boasted  their  descent  1    The  northern- 
most city  of  their  territory,  Ramoth-Mizpeh,  was  also  hallowed 
by  early  associations.     If  it  was  not  the  same  as  the  celebrated 
Ramoth-Gilead,  it  is  with  much  probabihty  identified  with  the 
Galeed,  and  Jegar-Sahadutha,  where  Jacob  and  Laban  erected 
their  cairn  of  stones,  "  the  heap  of  witness,"  at  a  village  now 
called  Suf,  a  little  way  north-west  of  Gerasa  (Jerash),  in  which 
a  group  of  antique  stone  monuments  attests  that  the  spot  was 
once  a   sacred   centre.^     If  Ramoth-Gilead   be  not   Ramoth- 
Mizpeh,  the  former  must  be  fixed  at  Remun,  five  miles  west  of 
Jerash,  on  the  slopes  of  the  Jebel  Ajlun.     It  was  a  strong  and 
important  fortress,  the  key  of  Gilead,  and  played  a  conspicuous 
part  in  later  Jewish  history.     That  it  was  neither  Gerasa  itself, 
the  noblest  ruin  in  all  the  country,  but  of  much    later   date, 
nor  the  modern   town   of  Es  Salt,  the  position  of  which   is 
inappropriate  to  the  demands  of  history,  may  be  regarded  as 
tolerably  certain.     Between  Mahanaim  and  the  Sea  of  Galilee 

*  Its  position  is  discussed  by  Conder,  "  Heth  and  Moab,"  177  ff-i  and 
Merrill,  "East  of  the  Jordan,"  433  ff.  The  latter  places  it  at  Khurbet 
Suleikhat,  a  ruin  in  the  Jordan  valley,  a  little  north  of  the  Jabbok. 

2  This  identification,  to  which  Captain  Conder  assents,  is  the  discovery 
of  Mr.  Selah  Merrill,  "  East  of  the  Jordan,"  385  flf. 

3  Conder,  "  Heth  and  Moab,"  176. 

10 


I30  JOSHUA. 

on  the  north-western  frontier  lay  Debir,  which  is  probably 
identical  with  Lodebar,  the  home  of  Machir,  who  helped  to 
provide  David  with  necessaries  when  he  fled  from  Absalom 
(2  Sam.  xvii.  27).  Another  city  in  the  north  of  Gad,  though  not 
mentioned  in  the  catalogue  of  the  towns,  is  Jabesh,  or  Jabesh- 
Gilead,  celebrated  some  years  later  as  supplying  wives  to  the 
moribund  tribe  of  Benjamin,  and  likewise  for  its  connection 
with  Saul  in  life  and  death/  The  name  is  preserved  in  the 
Wady  Yabis  which  winds  down  the  hills  of  Gilead,  debouching 
on  the  Jordan  somewhat  south  of  Bethshan  or  Scythopolis.  A 
ruin  on  the  south  side  of  this  valley,  called  inappropriately 
Ed-Deir,  "the  convent,"  about  six  miles  below  Bella,  is  sup- 
posed by  Robinson  ^  to  mark  the  site.  The  mountain  road  from 
Beisan  (Bethshan)  to  Gerasa  passes  the  spot,  and  the  remains 
of  columns  show  it  to  have  been  of  importance  at  some  time. 
The  formidable  fortress  of  Rabbath  Ammon  which  stands  at 
one  of  the  sources  of  the  Jabbok  has  been  described  by  many 
travellers.3  The  following  is  Tristram's  *  account  of  the  locality  : 
"  When  the  narrow  valley  had  suddenly  turned  the  corner  of  a 
knoll,  it  expanded  into  a  smooth  turfed  plain  for  half  a  mile, 
completely  shut  in  by  low  hills  on  each  side.  The  front  was 
blocked  by  a  round  and  steep,  but  flat-topped  mamelon  pushed 
forward,  on  which  was  the  fortress,  and  the  stream  flowed 
rapidly  past  it  on  the  east,  through  a  valley  contracted  at  once 
to  a  width  of  500  paces.  The  citadel  was  faced  by  another  little 
valley  running  at  a  right  angle  into  the  main  one,  and  was  con- 
nected by  a  narrow  neck  with  the  heights  on  the  left.  On  the 
other  side  of  this  neck  another  gully  started,  which  deepened  at 
once  into  a  steep  ravine,  and  joined  the  main  stream  half  a  mile 
beyond,  thus  almost  isolating  the  citadel."  This  was  the  capital 
city  of  the  Ammonites  from  whom  Sihon  had  taken  it,  and  was 
held  for  a  time  only  by  the  Gadites,  its  original  inhabitants 
recovering  possession  of  the  place  in  the  course  of  a  few  years, 
so  that  its  recapture  occupied  Joab  and  David  with  the  whole 
force  of  Judah  for  many  months.  Few  places  surpass  in 
interest  this  most  ancient  of  all  sites.  The  ruins  are  not  only 
very  extensive,  but  date  from  the  remotest  antiquity,  the  later 

^  Judg.  xxi.  8  ff .  ;  I  Sam.  xi.  ;  2  Sam.  ii. 
=  "  Later  Researches,"  319  ;  "  Samuel  and  Saul,"  100. 
»  See  "David:    His  Life  and   Times,"    126  f.  ;    Oliphant,    "Land  of 
Gilead,"  255  ff.  4  "  Land  of  Israel,"  545. 


ALLOTMENT  OF  THE   EAST.  I3I 

Structures  being  reared  upon  the  rough  unhewn  stones  which 
were  erected  in  prehistoric  times.      According  to  Ewald  and 
others,  Ammon  was  originally  called  Ham,  and  was  one  of  the 
earliest  cities  built  after  the  Flood,  being  so  named  by  Canaan, 
the  son  of  Ham,  who  possessed  all  this  region.     In  the  Jordan 
valley  lay  the  city  of  Beth-aram,or  Beth-haran  (Numb,  xxxii.  36), 
six  miles  east  of  the  river,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Wady  Heshbon. 
It  is  now  called  Tell  er  Rama,  and  was  at  one  time  the  favourite 
resort  of  Herod  Antipas,  who  rebuilt  it  and  named  it  Livias  or 
Julias.     It  is  not  improbable  that  it  was  at  this  place,  and  not  at 
Tiberias,  that  the  tyrant  was  celebrating  the  birthday  rendered 
infamous  by  the  murder  of  John  the  Baptist.    Machserus,  where 
John  was  imprisoned,  was  near  enough  to  Livias  to  enable  the 
executioner  to  perform  his  cruel  office  and  to  present  the  ghastly 
token  during  the  continuance  of  the  feast.    This  could  not  have 
been  accomplished  from  Tiberias  under  two  or  three  days.^    In 
the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  Beth-haran,  and  nearly  opposite 
Jericho,  was  Beth-nimrah,  now  Nimrin,  a  town  of  considerable 
size,  situated  on  a  copious  stream,  which  is  mentioned  by  the 
prophets  more  than  once  under  the  title  of  "  the  waters  of  Nim- 
rim."  =*    The  only  other  town  worthy  of  mention  occupied  by 
the  Gadites  was  Zaphon.     This  has  been  identified  by  Merrill 
with   Amathus,    now  Amateh,  an  important  ruin  and  mound 
about  three  miles  north  of  the  mouth  of  the  Wady  Rajib,  which 
enters  the  Jordan  valley  between  the  wadies  Zerka  and  Ajlun. 
If  Succoth  be   Deir  Alia,  the  four  towns,  Beth-aram,  Beth- 
nimrah,  Succoth,  and  Zaphon,  are  mentioned  (Josh.  xiii.  27)  in 
regular  order  from  south  to  north.     Modern  research  invariably 
proves  the  accuracy  of  the  geographical  details  in  this  book, 
which  are  doubtless  founded  on  careful  survey  and  contemporary 
documents. 

The  sentence  of  Jacob  concerning  Gad  was  this,  the  import 
depending  on  the  paronomasia,  of  which  Hebrew  bards  are  so 
enamoured  : 

"Gad,  a  troop  [gedud]  shall  press  [gud]  on  him, 
But  he  shall  press  upon  their  heel."     (Gen.  xlix.  19.) 

The    saying    of   Moses  was  more  lengthy,  but  to   much  the 
same  purpose  : 

*  Merrill,  "  East  of  the  Jordan,"  383 

*  Isa.  XV.  6  ;  Jer.  xlviii.  34. 


132  JOSHUA. 

"  Blessed  be  he  that  enlargeth  Gad  ; 
He  dwelleth  as  a  lioness, 

And  teareth  the  arm,  yea,  the  crown  of  the  head. 
And  he  looked  out  the  first  part  for  himself, 
Because  there  was  the  leader's  portion  reserved  ; 
And  he  came  with  the  heads  of  the  people, 
He  executed  the  justice  of  the  Lord, 
And  His  judgments  with  Israel."  (Deut.  xxxiii.  20  f.) 

The  former  announcement  refers  plainly  to  Gad's  position  on 
the  eastern  frontier,  where  he  was  attacked  by  marauding 
Ammonites  and  other  desert  tribes,  and  manfully  resisted,  and 
in  his  turn  harassed  their  retreat.  Moses  speaks  of  the  spacious 
territory  allotted  to  Gad,  the  warlike  character  of  the  clan,  how 
it  received  a  share  in  the  very  firstfruits  of  Israel's  conquests, 
how  it  took  a  leading  part  in  the  war,  and  loyally  joined  its 
brethren  in  fulfilling  God's  commands  concerning  the  subjection 
of  Canaan.  Fierce  and  rude  as  the  Gadites  were,  they  rose  far 
superior  to  their  wild  neighbours  in  civilization,  and  long 
retained  their  close  connection  with  Western  Palestine. 
From  their  ranks  sprung  some  men  of  remarkable  eminence. 
The  heroic  leader  and  judge  Jephthah,  the  grand  prophet 
Elijah,  the  generous  Barzillai,  were  reared  in  Gilead.  To  the 
houses  of  Saul  and  David  the  Gadites  showed  devoted  attach- 
ment. At  Mahanaim  Ishbosheth  safely  established  his  mimic 
throne  ;  here  David  found  an  asylum  when  he  retreated  before 
his  son  Absalom  ;  hence  he  obtained  some  of  his  most  valiant 
warriors,  who,  in  order  to  join  this  admired  prince,  swam  the 
Jordan  in  the  time  of  flood,  men  who  could  handle  spear  and 
shield,  who  had  the  faces  of  lions,  who  were  as  swift  as  the 
gazelles  on  their  own  mountains.'  The  constant  hostility  to 
which  they  were  exposed  from  the  tribes  whom  they  dis- 
possessed, or  from  those  who  feared  their  neighbourhood 
developed  their  hardy,  warlike  spirit ;  they  pushed  their  limits 
beyond  the  territory  allotted  to  them  ;  we  hear  of  them  over- 
coming the  nomad  hordes  on  their  eastern  frontier,  and  cap- 
turing enormous  herds  of  camels,  asses,  and  sheep.''  We  leave 
them  at  this  time  happily  situated,  able  to  hold'their  own,  and 
still  retaining  a  close  connection  with  their  brethren  in  the 
west. 
The  largest  portion  of  the  Trans-Jordanic  territory,  estimated 

*  I  Chron.  xii.  8.  s  Ibid.  v.  19  ff. 


ALLOTMENT  OF  THE  EAST.  133 

roughly  at  2,500  square  miles,  was  occupied  by  the  half-tribe  of 
Manasseh.      It  has  been  supposed   that,   finding    themselves 
cramped  in  their  western  quarters,  and  overbalanced  by  their 
brethren  Ephraimites,  they  migrated  across  the  river  and  won 
for  themselves  new  possessions  there.^    This,  indeed,  may  be 
partly  true,  but  it  is  not  a  correct  account  of  the  settlement. 
Moses  had  contemplated  establishing  a  part  certainly  of  the 
tribe  on  the  east  before  the  conquest  of  the  rest  of  the  country, 
confirming  them  apparently  in  their  conquests,  and  deeming 
them  best  fitted   to   defend  the  passes  of  Anti-Libanus  and 
Hauran.      The   tribe  had  greatly  increased  in   numbers   and 
reputation  during  the  last  period  of  the  wandering.     At   the 
first  census  in  Sinai  its  numbers  were  32,200 ;  at  the  end  of 
the  forty  years  it  had  grown  to  52,700.  The  foremost  part  taken 
by  Manasseh    in    the   subjection  of  Gilead,  and  the  prowess 
displayed  in  that  campaign,  designated  the  tribe  as  the  fittest 
tenant  of  the  difficult  region  which  it  was  chiefly  instrumental 
in  subduing.2     These  Manassites   were  now  no  longer  mere 
shepherds,  cattle-breeders,  or  agriculturists  ;  and  it  was  from 
no  love  of  a  pastoral  life  that  they  elected  to  fix  their  habitation 
on  the   eastern    territory.      They  had   developed   into  hardy 
warriors,  who  enjoyed  the  turmoil  of  battle  and  the  excitement 
of  military  expeditions,  and  were  fain  to  hold  with  the  sword 
that  which  they  had  won  v/ith  the  sword.     That  they  were 
executing  a  righteous  vengeance  on  foul  idolaters  was  a  fact 
that  sanctified  their  efforts,  and   encouraged    them    in    their 
arduous  enterprise.     There  was  evidently   a  division   in   the 
habits  and  occupations   of   the   tribe.      The   smaller  section, 
which    had  a  taste  for    agricultural  pursuits,  and  a  quiet,  in- 
dustrious  life,  separated  itself   from   its  warlike  brother,  and 
cast  in  its  lot  with  the  western  tribes,  adhering  especially  to 
its  kindred    Ephraim.     The    Trans-Jordanic   Manassites   are 
described   as  being   children    of   Machir,    and    effecting  their 
conquests  under  the  conduct  of  Jair  and  Nobah  ;  and  it  seems 
probable  that  they  added  greatly  to  their  possessions  after  the 
days  of  Joshua,  and  that  the  limits  assigned  to  their  territory 
are  rather  those  which  they  afterwards  obtained  than  those  of 
the  original  conquest.     The  inheritance  of  Manasseh   is   de- 
scribed generally  as  the  kingdom  of  Og,  that  is,  the  northern 

'  Ewald,  "  Hist,  of  Israel,"  ii.  281,  299. 
«  Numb,  xxxii.  39  ff.  ;  Deut.  iii.  13  if. 


134  JOSHUA. 

part  of  Gilead  and  all  Bashan.  Its  southern  border  was 
Mahanaim  ;  but  as  the  site  of  this  place  is  still  undetermined 
we  may  consider  the  Hieromax  or  Jarmuk  as  forming  the 
boundary  in  the  direction  of  Gad.  Its  northern  limit  was 
Mount  Hermon,  Damascus  being  at  that  time  too  powerful  to 
be  attacked  with  any  hope  of  success  ;  the  Sea  of  Galilee  and 
the  Upper  Jordan  bounded  it  on  the  west,  while  on  the  east  it 
stretched  far  into  the  desert  of  Arabia,  It  included  what  was 
known  in  Greek  and  Roman  times  as  Trachonitis,  Ituraea, 
Batanaea,  Gaulanitis,  Auranitis,  and  in  later  days  as  Jedur,  El- 
Lejah,  Jaulan,  Hauran.  The  best  general  view  of  the  territory 
of  Og,  says  Mr.  Oliphant/  is  obtained  from  Tel  el  Faris,  the 
most  southerly  peak  of  the  Jebel  Hesh  range,  which  runs  to 
the  east  of  Lakes  Merom  and  Gennesareth.  Hence  the  eye 
can  range  over  a  vast  extent  of  plain  and  pasture-land,  well 
watered,  partially  strewed  with  basaltic  rocks,  but  capable  of 
supporting  countless  flocks  and  herds.  To  the  south  the  steppe 
stretches  away  unbroken  till  cleft  by  the  gorge  of  the  Jarmuk, 
beyond  which  the  country  becomes  more  undulated  and  woody, 
terminating  in  the  lofty  range  of  the  mountains  of  Gilead. 
Looking  more  to  the  east  we  see  the  vast  corn-lands  of  Hauran 
bounded  by  the  hills  of  Bashan  and  the  Jebel  Druse  ;  to  the 
north-east  we  look  over  the  pasture  of  Itursea,  with  the  solitary 
cone  of  Tel  el  Hara  rising  about  half-way  between  Merom  and 
El  Lejah,  and  forming  a  conspicuous  landmark.  In  this  direc- 
tion the  view  is  closed  by  the  Jebel  el  Mania,  beyond  which  lies 
the  city  of  Damascus.  South-west  the  plain  for  nearly  twenty 
miles  is  more  or  less  interrupted  with  rocks,  and  terminates 
abruptly  in  the  precipitous  shores  of  the  Sea  of  Tiberias, 
behind  which  looms  the  irregular  outline  of  the  mountains  of 
Western  Palestine.  The  physical  characters  of  the  region  are 
almost  as  various  as  its  names.  The  extreme  north  was  formed 
by  the  lower  slopes  of  Hermon,  an  inaccessible  mountainous 
region,  which,  however,  helped  to  fertilize  the  rich  country  at 
its  foot  by  sending  into  it  numerous  streams  from  its  pre- 
cipitous defiles.  Below  this,  lying  on  the  east  next  to  the 
waters  of  Merom  and  Gennesareth,  and  rising  to  a  plateau  3,000 
feet  above  the  latter,  came  the  province  now  called  Golan  or 
Jaulan,  from  its  ancient  capital,  Golan.  Seen  from  the  opposite 
side  of  the  lake  the  district  looks  like  a  rugged  mountain  range, 
'  "  Land  of  Gilead,"  62  £ 


ALLOTMENT  OF  THE  EAST.  I35 

but  the  hills  visible  thence  are  merely  the  supporting  wall  of  a 
fertile  upland,  clothed  with  the  richest  grass,  and  once  teeming 
with,  as  it  was  capable  of  supporting,  a  large  population. 
Towards  Merom  this  wall  forms  a  series  of  terraces,  on  which 
a  rich  soil  has  been  conveyed -or  has  accumulated,  exhibiting 
most  luxuriant  herbage  and  flowers  of  surpassing  beauty. 
Along  the  outskirts  of  this  region  are  seen  magnificent  forests 
of  oak  and  terebinth.  The  oasis  of  the  territory  is  the  country 
to  the  east  of  Golan,  the  Batanasa  of  the  Romans,  the  name  of 
which  recalls  the  ancient  Bashan,  though  its  extent  is  much 
less.  It  is  a  picturesque  mountainous  region,  abounding  in 
pasturage  and  forests.  Here  grew  the  oaks,  here  fed  the  bulls 
and  cattle  that  made  Bashan  so  celebrated.  South-east  of  this 
<listrict,  now  termed  Ard-el-Bathanyeh,  comes  the  Hauran 
(Auranitis),  "  the  Cave-land,"  so  called  from  the  extensive  use 
of  caves  as  dwellings  by  the  inhabitants,  who  everywhere  also 
stored  their  water  and  their  grain  in  such  artificial  receptacles. 
It  is  generally  a  flat  land,  which  Mr.  Merrill  compares  to  the 
richest  prairie  of  his  own  America.^  The  fertile  humus  lies 
on  the  old  lava  beds  ;  and  in  a  great  part  of  the  country,  with 
the  exception  of  a  few  volcanic  tells^  not  a  hill  or  stone  is  to  be 
seen  above  the  surface.  Yet  the  buildings  that  remain,  some 
of  remote  antiquity,  were  constructed  entirely  of  the  hardest 
basalt.  Wood  being  very  scarce,  everything,  even  doors  and 
joists,  was  made  of  stone,  the  principle  of  the  arch  being 
largely  used  to  supply  the  carpenter's  art.  On  the  more  hiily 
portion  of  the  Hauran  a  large  part  of  the  population,  says  Mr. 
Oliphant,^  still  live  in  caves,  most  probably  the  same  subter- 
ranean dv/ellings  in  which  the  Repbaim  dwelt.  These  consist 
usually  oi  one  or  two  rooms  excavated  from  the  side  of  the  hill, 
closed  in  front  with  blocks  of  stone  fitted  together  without 
cement,  and  entered  by  a  door  of  stone  turning  on  a  stone 
hinge.  Where  the  dwelling  protrudes  beyond  the  subterranean 
portion,  it  is  covered  with  a  flat  roof  of  stone  and  clay,  which 
forms  the  usual  lounge  of  the  idler  and  the  gossip.  At  Dra'a 
there  is  a  veritable  underground  city  excavated  in  the  rock,  on 
the  surface  of  which  another  and  later  city  has  been  built. 
Here  are  regular  streets  with  dwellings  on  either  side  and 
openings  for  ventilation  reaching  to  the  ground  above  ;  heic 

«  "  East  of  the  Jordan,"  333. 

»  "  Land  ot  Gilead,".  103  If.  ;  Merrill,  349  ff. 


136  JOSHUA. 

are  shops  very  similar  to  those  found  in  other  Syrian  cities ; 
here  is  a  great  hall,  the  roof  of  which,  composed  of  jasper,  is 
supported  by  four  pillars.  There  seems  to  have  been  no  means 
of  admitting  the  light  of  day  to  these  dismal  abodes.  It  has 
been  suggested  that,  seeing  the  Troglodytes  of  this  region 
issuing  from  their  tomb-like  dwellings,  the  Israelites  called  them 
Rephaim,  "  the  dead,"  and  that  this  term  was  afterwards  applied 
to  them  in  the  sense  of  "giants,"  which  it  sometimes  bears. 
North-east  of  the  Hauran,  and  stretching  towards  the  territory 
of  Damascus,  lay  the  most  remarkable  district  of  the  whole 
country,  the  names  of  which  reflect  its  physical  character. 
Argob  ("the  stony"),  the  Roman  Trachonitis  (" the  rugged "), 
the  modern  Lejah  ("  asylum  "),  is  a  grim  and  forbidding  region 
of  black  basalt,  lying  to  the  east  of  the  plain  of  Jaulan,  about 
twenty  miles  long  by  fifteen  broad.  Elevated  above  the  plain, 
and  consisting  of  a  labyrinth  of  rock  and  cleft,  and  crevasse,  it 
forms  a  natural  fortress  which  has  made  it  a  refuge  for  the 
oppressed  and  disaffected,  whence  the  Government  authorities 
have  often  in  vain  endeavoured  to  dislodge  them.  Here  in 
1835  a  small  body  of  800  Druses  resisted  the  whole  a,rmy  of 
Ibrahim  Pasha,  who  after  a  siege  of  eleven  months,  in  the 
course  of  which  he  lost  25,000  men,  was  forced  to  withdraw  his 
troops,  leaving  the  enemy  unsubdued.'  In  strict  accordance 
with  the  peculiar  nature  of  the  boundary  of  Argob,  the  region  is 
usually  designated  by  a  Hebrew  word  that  means  "  rope  "  ;  thus 
in  Deut.  iii.  4ff.,  "the  region  of  Argob"  is  literally  "the  rope  of 
Argob,"  the  term  accurately  expressing  the  abrupt  dehniteness 
of  the  line  of  division  between  this  and  the  surrounding 
country.  "  The  lava  bed  proper,"  says  Mr.  Merrill,^  "  embraces 
350  square  miles,  and  its  average  height  above  the  surround- 
ing plain  is  perhaps  twenty  feet.  The  bed  in  its  outline  or 
edge  is  far  from  being  regular,  but  sends  out  at  a  multitude 
of  points  black  promontories  of  rock  into  the  surrounding 
plain.  Through  this  rugged  shore  there  are  a  few  openings 
into  the  interior,  but  for  the  most  part  it  is  impassable,  and 
roads  had  to  be  excavated  to  the  towns  situated  within  it. 
.  .  .  The  surface  is  black,  and  has  the  appearance  of  the  sea 
when  it  is  in  motion  beneath  a  dark,  cloudy  sky,  and  when 
the  waves  are  of  a   good  size,  but    without    any  white  crests 

I  Olipliant,  "  Land  of  Gilead,"  56  f.  ;  Grove,  ap.  "  Diet,  of  the  Bible." 
i.  105,  298.  '^  "  East  of  the  lordan,"  11  if. 


ALLOTMENT  OF  THE  EAST.  137 

of  foam.  But  this  sea  of  lava  is  motionless,  and  its  great 
waves  are  petrified.  In  the  process  of  cooling,  the  lava 
cracked,  and  in  some  places  the  layers  of  great  basalt  blocks 
look  as  if  they  had  been  prepared  and  placed  where  they  are 
by  artificial  means.  In  other  cases  the  hillocks  have  split 
lengthwise,  or  sometimes  into  several  portions,  and  thus  seams 
have  been  opened,  forming  great  fissures  and  chasms  which 
cannot  be  crossed."  This  uninviting  tract  was  thickly  studded 
with  cities  and  villages,  the  ruins  of  which  are  still  extant. 

The  number  of  cities  that  came  into  the  possession  of 
Manasseh  is  stated  to  have  been  threescore  ;  but  this  seems 
to  refer  only  to  those  existing  in  one  portion  of  the  whole  ter- 
ritory, and  takes  no  account  of  the  other  places  of  note  included 
therein.  These  we  may  briefly  mention.  On  the  south-west  of 
Argob  stood  the  formidable  city  of  Edrei,  the  scene  of  Og's 
final  stand  and  slaughter.  It  was  built  on  a  rocky  promontory 
one  and  a  half  miles  wide  and  two  and  a  half  long,  in  an  almost 
inaccessible  position,  with  no  natural  supply  of  water,  the  want 
being  met  by  immense  subterranean  reservoirs  which  still  are 
the  astonishment  of  the  traveller.  There  is  not  a  tree  or  a 
shrub  in  the  neighbourhood  ;  there  is  no  access  except  over 
rocks  or  through  defiles  almost  impassable,  every  convenience 
being  sacrificed  to  strength  and  security.  The  city  is  now 
known  as  Edra  ;  the  Greeks  called  it  Adraa  ;  it  was  occupied 
later  by  the  Romans,  and  the  remains  of  their  tenure  are  seen 
in  an  enormous  mass  of  ruins  ;  but  many  traces  of  the  earlier 
inhabitants  survive,  while  the  works  of  their  successors  have 
crumbled  to  the  dust  ^  That  the  Israelites  captured  this  im- 
pregnable fortress  speaks  well  for  their  intrepidity  and  military 
skill,  but  was  probably  chiefly  owing  to  the  depression  occa- 
sioned by  the  utter  defeat  and  death  of  the  king,  and  the  want 
of  any  organized  resistance  to  the  invaders.  Argob  and  its 
capital  offered  no  inducements  to  a  pastoral  people ;  they  were 
the  proper  home  of  a  lawless  and  marauding  horde  ;  and  the 
more  civilized  Manassites  seem  to  have  not  cared  to  retain 
hold  of  this  uninviting  district  when  once  the  thirst  of  conquest 
was  satisfied.  Next  in  importance  to  Edrei  came  a  place  cele- 
brated as  a  centre  of  the  worship  of  Ashtoreth,  the  principal 
female  divinity  of  the  Phoenicians,  and  in  many  attributes 
equivalent  to  the  Astarte  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans.  The 
*  Porter,  "  Giant  Cities,"  93  ;  Merrill,  26  if. 


138  JOSHUA. 

city  itself  was  called  Ashtaroth,  and  Ashtaroth-Karnaim  ("  the 
two-horned"),  the  latter  name  indicating  the  worship  of  the 
moon,  like  Horace's  "two-horned  Queen  of  stars."  ^  It- has 
been  identified  with  Tel  Ashtara,  a  remarkable  mound  above 
a  gorge  in  which  is  the  principal  source  of  the  Jarmuk,  about 
twenty-five  miles  east  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  and  fifteen  from 
Og's  other  capital,  Edrei.  With  the  defile  of  the  Jarmuk  on 
one  side  and  a  deep  chasm  cleft  by  a  waterfall  on  the  other, 
and  with  three  tiers  of  walls  to  guard  the  more  accessible  parts, 
Ashtaroth  must  have  been  practically  impregnable.^  In  taking 
this  place,  the  Manassites  were  treading  in  the  steps  of  the 
conqueror  Chedorlaomer  in  their  forefather  Abraham's  time, 
when  this  monarch  in  conjunction  with  his  vassal  kings  smote 
the  Rephaim  in  Bashan  at  Ashtaroth-Karnaim.  Of  the  towns 
situated  in  Argob  itself  we  have  but  few  accounts.  One  of 
them,  captured  by  an  heroic  Manassite  named  Nobah,  and 
called  after  himself  Nobah,  soon  recovered  its  old  name 
Kenath,  and  is  now  known  as  Kunawat.  It  lies  at  the  southern 
point  of  the  district,  in  a  line  with  the  lower  end  of  Gennesareth 
at  the  distance  of  sixty  miles.  On  the  edge  of  the  Wady  Kuna- 
wat, a  deep  ravine  with  perpendicular  sides,  stood  the  ancient 
city,  with  a  large  number  of  dependent  towns  in  its  immediate 
vicinity.  Beyond  this  stony  region,  still  farther  to  the  east, 
was  Salcah,  a  large  town  built  round  an  imposing  hill,  on 
which  in  later,  if  not  early,  days  stood  a  strong  castle  visible 
from  all  the  plain  of  Bashan.  It  is  now  called  Salkhad,  and 
though  it  appears  but  little  in  later  Jewish  history,  being  the 
frontier  fortress  on  the  east  and  a  place  of  considerable  strength, 
it  must  have  always  been  of  vast  importance  to  the  possessors 
of  Bashan.  There  seem  to  be  no  tokens  of  Manassite  occupa- 
tion ;  and  probably,  like  other  of  these  towns,  it  was  won  by 
individual  enterprise,  and  abandoned  after  a  brief  tenure.  To 
the  modern  traveller  the  most  noticeable  feature  is  the  site 
of  the  old  castle,  which  is  built  in  the  mouth  of  an  extinct 
crater,  on  a  conical  eminence  in  the  centre,  the  bowl-shaped 
crater  forming  a  natural  moat  round  it.  The  hill  itself  is  some 
three  hundred  feet  high,  and  makes  a  conspicuous  landmark, 
defining  the  limit  of  the  territory  eastward.^  The  city  Golan, 
which  gave  its  name  to  the  province  Gaulonitis,  now  Jaulan, 

^  "  Carm  Snscul,"  35. 

2  Oliphant,   "  Land  of  Gilead,"  84  ff.  ;  Merrill,    "East  of  the  Jordan,'* 
328  ff.  3  Merrill,  50  f. 


ALLOTMENT  OF  THE   EAST.  I39 

has  not  yet  been  certainly  identified.  There  is  a  tributary  of  the 
Jarmuk  coming  from  the  north-east  which  bears  the  name  of 
Nahr  Allan,  which  word,  in  Mr.  Merrill's  opinion,  may  repre- 
sent the  ancient  Golan.  In  this  wady  the  place  of  greatest 
importance  is  Nawa,  which  contains  remains  of  vast  antiquity, 
and  may  very  possibly  be  the  unknown  Golan,  as  there  is  no 
other  suitable  ruin-  between  this  and  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  and 
it  stands  exactly  in  the  direction  where  this  town  may  be 
expected  to  lie.'  The  only  other  places  mentioned  as  taken 
at  this  time  by  the  Manassites  are  "the  towns  of  Jair,"  Havoth- 
Jair.  This  Jair  by  maternal  descent  was  connected  with 
Machir  ;  by  his  father's  family  he  was  a  member  of  the  tribe 
of  Judah,  and  seems  to  have  been  a  most  brave  and  successful 
warrior,  and  to  have  given  his  name  to  a  group  of  towns  which 
he  conquered  and  colonized.  The  Chronicler  (i  Chron.  iii.  22) 
reckons  these  as  twenty-three  in  number  ;  in  the  time  of  the 
Judge  Jair,  the  descendant  of  the  original  possessor,  they  are 
called  thirty  ;  ^  but  the  multitude  of  cities  in  this  district  was 
enormous  ;  the  wildest  regions  are  full  of  ruins  to  this  day  ; 
and  the  population  at  one  time  must  have  been  rerriarkably 
numerous.  Hauran  alone  is  said  to  have  contained  a  thousand 
towns,  and  in  the  other  divisions  which  composed  the  province 
of  Manasseh  at  least  an  equal  number  was  to  be  found. 

The  blessing  invoked  both  by  Jacob  and  Moses  on  the 
descendants  of  Joseph  cannot  be  readily  assigned  to  the 
separate  fortunes  of  Ephraim  and  Manasseh.  The  two  tribes 
are  blended  in  one  view,  and  there  is  little  that  can  be  appro- 
priated to  the  circumstances  of  the  half-tribe  with  which  we  are 
at  present  concerned.  The  expression,  "Joseph  is  a  fruitful 
bough  whose  branches  run  over  the  wall,"  may  point  to  the 
two  tribes  that  sprang  from  Joseph,  or  to  the  luxuriance  of 
Manasseh  which  led  to  his  spreading  himself  in  two  quarters. 
Both  of  the  benedictions  refer  to  the  exuberant  fertility  of  the 
possessions  assigned  to  the  tribes,  and  are  fully  justified  by  the 
physical  features  of  their  inheritances.  From  Manasseh  sprang 
the  greatest  of  all  the  Judges,  Gideon,  in  whose  family  here- 
ditary monarchy  was  almost  established  ;  and  in  their  frank 
loyalty  and  soldierly  devotion  to  authority  it  was  long  before  the 
Manassites  succumbed  to  the  degrading  influences  of  surround- 
ing heathenism,  and  quitted  their  simple  faith  and  settled  life  for 
the  foul  fictions  of  idolatry  and  the  lawlessness  of  nomadism. 
»  Merrill,  324  ff.  ;  Oliphant,  71.  "  Judg.  x.  4. 


CHAPTER   I^. 

ALLOTMENT  OF  JUDAH   AND  JOSEPH. 

Arrangements  for  the  further  distribution  of  territory — The  lot  —  Caleb's 
inheritance  at  Hebron — Othniel  and  Achsah — Settlement  of  Judah^ 
Boundaries  of  the  territory — The  Negeb  ;  Kerioth  ;  Beersheba — The 
Shephelah  ;  Zoreah  ;  Socoh  ;  Keilah  —  The  Hill  Country  and  its 
cities  ;  Places  connected  with  David's  outlaw  life ;  Bethlehem  ;  Jeshi- 
mon  ;  Engedi — Characteristics  and  fortunes  of  Judah — Settlement  of 
the  tribe  of  Joseph — Boundaries  of  the  territory  ;  its  physical  character 
— Complaint  and  pride  of  Ephraim — Inheritance  of  Ephraim  :  Shiloh  ; 
Timnath-serah — Inheritance  of  Manasseh — Daughters  of  Zelophehad — 
Esdraelon  ;  Bethshan  ;  Ibleam  ;  Endor  ;  Megiddo  ;  Ophrah — Taber- 
nacle removed  to  Shiloh. 

Hitherto  Joshua  had  been  supreme  in  command.  His  con- 
duct of  the  military  expeditions  undertaken  for  the  subjugation 
of  Canaan  had  been  shared  by  no  one.  The  second  great  task, 
the  allotment  of  the  land  to  the  nine  and  a  half  tribes,  was 
entrusted,  as  we  have  seen,  to  a  commission  often  chiefs  under 
the  joint  superintendence  of  Joshua  and  Eleazar  the  high  priest. 
The  latter,  as  the  representative  of  the  religious  aspect  of  the 
business,  assumed  the  paramount  authority  ;  the  other  ele- 
ments gave  to  it  the  sanction  of  the  military  and  civil  depart- 
ments. The  distribution  of  the  several  portions  was  to  be 
made  by  lot,  in  order  that  it  might  be  recognized  as  entirely 
in  the  hand  of  a  superintending  Providence.  The  lot,  however, 
determined  merely  the  relative  position  of  each  portion  and  the 
tribe  to  which  it  fell ;  the  extent  and  limits  of  each  inheritance 
were  settled  by  the  commissioners  on  due  consideration  of  the 
requirements  of  each  case.  We  are  not  told  in  what  way  the 
lot  was  taken.  Probably  there  were  two  urns,  one  of  which 
contained  the  names  of  the  tribes  written  on  slips  of  parchment 


ALLOTMENT  OF  JUDAH  AND  JOSEPH.  X4I 

or  wood,  the  other  the  names  or  numbers  of  the  portions  into 
which  the  whole  territory  had  been  roughly  divided.  Each 
tribal  representative  drew  one  of  the  tickets  from  each  vessel, 
and  his  situation  in  the  Promised  Land  was  thus  fixed.  That 
the  arrangement  thus  finally  effected  bore  a  remarkable  analogy 
to  the  position  of  the  tribes  round  the  central  sanctuary  during 
the  march  through  the  wilderness,  shows  the  presence  of  a 
controlling  will  throughout  all  the  proceedings,  which  directs 
minds,  foresees  events,  and  does  all  things  well 

The  solemn  casting  of  lots  took  place  in  the  camp  at  Gilgal, 
and  the  tribe  of  Judah,  as  it  excelled  the  others  in  population 
and  military  capacity,  and  as,  carrying  out  the  order  of  march 
maintained  in  the  desert,  it  had  led  the  vanguard  in  battle, 
was  the  first  to  receive  its  apportionment.  But  before  the 
commencement  of  the  proceedings  a  claim,  supported  by  the 
elders  of  the  tribe,  was  made  by  Caleb  to  have  a  certain 
inheritance  assigned  to  him  without  the  intervention  of  the  lot. 
Caleb,  as  we  have  seen,  was  the  only  one  of  the  twelve  spies 
who  joined  Joshua  in  giving  an  encouraging  report  of  the  Pro- 
mised Land,  and  was  with  him  rewarded  by  being  preserved 
to  see  the  conquest  an  accomplished  fact  From  his  being 
called  "  the  Keni7zite  "  (Josh.  xiv.  6)  he  has  been  thought  to 
have  been  of  foreign  extraction,  descended  from  the  Edomiteclan 
of  Kenlzzites,^  and  adopted  by  circumcision  into  the  tribe  of 
Judah.  A  further  presumption  in  support  of  this  opinion  is 
found  in  two  expressions  used  concerning  him,  when  it  is  said 
that  he  had  "a  part  among  the  children  of  Judah  "  (xv.  13), 
and  that  "he  wholly  followed  Jehovah,  God  of  Israel"  (xiv.  14). 
But  these  arguments  are  of  small  force,  and  it  is  most  probable 
that  his  immediate  ancestor  in  the  tribe  was  one  Kenaz,  and 
that  his  family  was  known  by  this  name.  He  himself  had  a 
son  or  grandson  so  called.^  Now  this  good  old  man  comes 
before  his  comrade  Joshua,  the  sole  survivor  with  him  of  the 
Exodus,  and  demands  from  him  the  fulfilment  of  a  promise 
made  on  their  return  from  the  exploration  nearly  fifty  years 
ago.  He  recalls  how  "  Moses  sware  on  that  day  to  him,  saying. 
Surely  the  land  whereon  tby  foot  hath  trodden  shall  be  an 
inheritance  to  thee  and  to  tliy  children  for  ever,  because  thou 
hast  wholly  followed  the  Lord  thy  God."  This  declaration, 
though  not  expressly  m.entioned  in  our  present  record,  was 
*  Gen.  XV.  19.  '  i  Chron.  iv.  15. 


142  JOSHUA, 

doubtless  well  known  to  Joshua,  and  had  often  been  preseM 
to  his  mind  as  he  retraced  the  familiar  track  of  the  spies  in  the 
course  of  his  military  expeditions.     Caleb  is  fain  to  note  that 
he  is  now  fourscore  and  five  years  old,  yet  is  not  infirm  or 
unfit  for  active  enterprise.     A  virtuous  youth  had  resulted  in 
a  vigorous  old  age,  so  that  the  senior  could  say  simply,  without 
boasting  :  "  As  yet  I  am  as  strong  this  day  as  I  was  in  the  day 
that  Moses  sent  me  ;  as  my  strength  was  then,  even  so  is  my 
strength  now,  for  war,  and  to  go  out  and  to  come  in,."     Then 
he  prefers  his  request  and  asks  far  the  district  of  Hebron  on 
which  his  heart  had  been  set  ever  since  he  had  reconnoitred 
it  in  his  earlier  years.     It  was  a  possession,  which  would  need 
some  severe  fighting  to  win  ;  for  the  former  inhabitants,  and 
especially  the  Anakim,    had   re-established   themselves   there 
while  the  Israelites  had  been  occupied  elsewhere  ;  but  the  old 
warrior  had  no  fears  on  this  score,  and  felt  himself  fully  able 
to  make  good  his  claim.     If,  as  he  trusted,  the  Lord  was  with 
him,  he  would  find  no  insuperable  difficulty  in  expelling  the 
interlopers,  however  numerous  or  gigantic.     Gladly  did  Joshua 
grant  the  request  of  his  old  companion,  solemnly  blessing  hiirt 
in  his  new  inheritance ;  and  thus  Hebron  passed  into  Caleb's 
possession,   the  city   itself  being   made   over  by  him  to  the 
Levites,  while  he  retained  the  land  for  his  own  use.    What 
an  important  part  this  place  played  in  the  hfe  of  David  is  told 
in  the  history  o<f  that  monarch.     One  episode  in  the  conquest 
of   the   district    is    considered    worthy   cf    special    mention.* 
Among  the  cities  in  the  territory  which  had  to  be  re-conquered 
was  Kirjath-sepher,  or  Debir.     Like  Saul  under  the  challenge 
of  Goliath,  like  David  at   the  assault  of  Sion,  Caleb  offered 
a  reward  to  the  brave  soldier  who  should  take  and  smite  this 
town.     The  guerdon  in  this  case  v.'as  to  be  the  hand  of  his 
daughter  Achsah.     Othniel,  Caleb's  younger  brother,  won  the 
prize,  there  being  at  that  time  no  positive  law,  and  indeed  no 
general  sentiment  against   the  marriage  of  uncle  and  niece 
The  wedding  was   duly  inaugurated,   and   Othniel,  according 
to  immemorial  custom,  went  with  a  cavalcade  of  friends  to  the 
father's  house  at  Hebron  to  bring  his  bride  to  his  own  home- 
ac  Debir.     Caleb  as  dowry  had  given  his  daughter  a  possessioii 
which,  like  most  parts  of  that  district,  was  destitute  of  water- 
Achsah,  who  seems  to  have  been   a  young  woman  of  great 
^  josh.  XV.  13-19  ;  I'-idg-  i  lo^  i,i„ 


ALLOTMENT  OF  JUDAH   AND  JOSEPH.  I43 

prudence,  urged  her  husband  to  ask  her  father  for  a  field  which 
■was  better  fitted  for  cultivation.  Othniel  demurring  to  make 
the  request,  she  determined  to  do  so  herself.  Riding  by  the 
side  of  her  father,  she  suddenly  flung  herself  from  the  ass  which 
carried  her,  and  faUing  on  her  knees,  held  up  her  hands  in  an 
attitude  of  entreaty.  Astonished  at  his  daughter's  behaviour, 
Caleb  asked  her  what  she  wanted.  "  Give  me  a  blessing,"  she 
replied.  "  Make  me  a  worthy  present  on  this  my  marriage  day. 
For  that  thou  hast  set  me  in  the  land  of  the  south,  give  me 
also  springs  of  water."  The  fond  old  father  could  not  resist 
the  bride's  entreaty,  and  bestowed  upon  her  "the  upper  and 
the  nether  springs  "—a  great  boon  indeed  in  the  Negeb,  but 
one  which  the  unusual  abundance  in  the  vicinity  enabled  him 
to  give.  In  a  secluded  valley  near  Debir  there  is  quite  a 
phenomenal  supply  of  water,  fourteen  springs  in  all,  some  in 
the  upper  part  of  the  valley,  some  in  the  lower,  which  never 
fail  in  the  dryest  summer  ;  the  land  thus  fertilized  became 
Achsah's  portion.^ 

Caleb's  inheritance  being  settled,  Eleazar  and  Joshua  pro- 
ceeded to  allot  the  possession  of  the  tribe  of  Judah.  In 
defining  the  boundaries  of  all  the  tribal  portions,  the  commis- 
sioners appear  to  have  followed  the  natural  features  of  the 
country,  and  these,  which  are  unchanged  in  the  lapse  of 
centuries,  can  still  be  traced  where  the  identification  of  frontier 
cities  is  at  fault-  Judah,  he  whom  his  brethren  should  praise, 
whose  hand  should  be  upon  the  neck  of  his  enemies,  to  whom, 
when  Reuben,  Simeon,  and  Levi  lost  their  rights  of  primo- 
geniture, the  father's  sons  bowed  down,^  received  the  largest 
inheritance  west  of  Jordan,  the  area  of  his  possession,  as 
originally  designated,  including  2,300  square  miles,  being  nearly 
one-third  of  the  whole  country.  Starting  from  the  lower  end 
of  the  Dead  Sea,  with  its  treeless  waste  of  salt-marsh,  only 
relieved  by  the  little  oasis  of  Es-Safieh  on  the  east,  the  southern 
boundary  passed  westward  along  the  south  side  of  Ma'aleh- 
Acrabbim,  "  the  ascent  of  scorpions,"  the  present  Wady  Zouara, 
where  to  this  day  those  reptiles  lurk  under  every  stone  ;  then 
following  the  great  mountain  wall  above  the  wilderness  of  Zin, 
it  trended  south  to  Kadesh-Barnea,  whence  it  turned  abruptly 
to  the  westward  till  it  struck  the  "  torrent  of  Egypt,"  the  Wady 

»  "  Pal.  Survey  Reports,"  1874,  p.  55  ;  Geikie,  i.  360  f. 
»  Gen.  xlix.  8  fif. 


144  JOSHUA. 

el  Arish,  which  continued  to  be  its  border  unto  the  Mediter- 
ranean. This  sea  formed  the  western  boundary  ;  the  eastern 
was  made  by  the  Dead  Sea  in  its  whole  extent  from  north  to 
south.  The  northern  boundary  is  not  so  easy  to  determine. 
Commencing  at  the  embouchure  of  the  Jordan,  it  traversed  the 
town  of  Beth-hogla,  two  miles  from  the  river,  now  Ain  Hajlah, 
with  a  lovely  spring  of  fresh  water  in  a  verdant  grove  ;  then 
passing  south  of  Jericho,  it  turned  up  the  valley  of  Achor,  the 
Wady  Kelt,  by  a  famous  stone  erected  to  commemorate  some 
achievement  of  a  Reubenite  named  Bohan  in  the  late  wars, 
and  then  followed  the  usual  route  from  the  Jordan  valley  to 
Jerusalem,  which  bore  the  ominous  name  Adummim,  "  the 
red,"  in  allusion,  says  Jerome,  to  the  blood  shed  by  the  robbers 
who  infested  the  spot.  This  is  the  scene  of  our  Lord's  Parable 
of  the  Good  Samaritan,  and  it  is  not  at  all  improbable  that  this 
fact  has  suggested  Jerome's  explanation  of  the  name.  But  it  is 
more  likely  to  have  arisen  from  some  physical  feature  in  the 
locality,  and  travellers  have  observed  purplish  rock  and  red 
chalk  on  the  sides  of  the  valley,  which  may  well  have  given 
rise  to  the  appellation.  About  two  miles  from  Jerusalem  the 
line  reached  the  waters  of  Enshemesh,  Ain  el  Haudr,  the 
Apostles'  Spring,  just  below  Bethany  ;  then  skirting  the  hill 
Ophel  south  of  the  Temple  Mount  by  Enrogel,  "the  Fountain 
of  the  Virgin,"  so  called  because,  as  the  legend  tells,  the 
mother  of  our  Lord  there  washed  His  swaddling  clothes,  the 
boundary  followed  the  valley  of  Hinnom,  on  the  south  and 
south-west  of  the  city,  mounting  from  the  ravine  to  the  ridge 
above  the  plain  of  Rephaim,  the  shallow  basin,  now  called  El 
Bukeia,  which  extends  its  stony  slope  to  Mar  Elias,  half-way 
between  Jerusalem  and  Bethlehem.  Thus  Jerusalem  itself  lay 
just  beyond  the  original  territory  of  Judah,  unless,  as  some 
suppose,  the  valley  of  Hinnom  be  identical  with  the  Tyropoeon, 
in  which  case  the  city  would  have  been  divided  between  Judah 
and  Benjamin-  Skirting  the  ridge  on  the  north-west  of  Jeru- 
salem, the  border  was  drawn  to  the  "  water  of  Nephtoah,"  the 
spring  Ain  Lifta  rising  above  a  village  of  the  same  name  two 
and  a  half  miles  north-west  of  Jerusalem  ;  thence  following 
the  range  of  hills,  it  passed  to  Kirjath-Jearim  with  its  thickly- 
wooded  forest,  whence  turning  south  it  took  in  Bethshemesh, 
Ain  Shems,  "the  well  of  the  sun,"  and  Timnah  (Tibneh),  three 
miles  to  the  west,  so  famous  in  after  time  for  the  exploits  of 


ALLOTMENT  OF  JUDAH  AND  JOSEPH.  1 45 

Samson  ;  thence  bending  toward  the  Philistine  city  of  Ekron, 
and  along  the  little  line  of  hills  running  parallel  with  the  coast, 
it  continued  some  way  down  the  Wady  es  Surah,  past  Jamnia, 
to  the  sea  about  eleven  miles  south  of  Jaffa.  The  territory  thus 
defined,  being  about  forty-five  miles  long  and  fifty  broad,  was 
of  varied  character  and  of  great  natural  strength.  It  comprised 
four  distinct  regions.  First  there  was  the  Negeb,  the  south, 
the  dry  land,  which  lay  between  the  central  hills  and  the 
desert.  This  is  a  series  of  rolling  hills  clothed  with  scanty 
herbage,  but  bare  of  trees  and  shrubs,  with  a  look  of  barren- 
ness about  them  which  hardly  gives  promise  of  the  fine 
pasturage  that  we  know  they  afforded.  Here  the  patriarchs 
had  folded  their  flocks  ;  but  the  district  was  never  thickly 
inhabited,  the  general  scarcity  of  perennial  springs  rendering  it 
unsuited  for  permanent  settlements.  There  are,  however,  some 
thirty '  cities  mentioned  as  appertaining  to  the  region,  but  most 
of  them  are  of  little  importance  and  quite  unknown  to  history, 
and  their  identification  is  more  curious  than  useful.  The  writer 
in  Josh.  XV.  has  methodically  arranged  the  towns  in  four  groups, 
running  from  east  to  west.  The  first,  consisting  of  nine  towns 
situated  on  the  border  of  Edom  towards  the  south-west  of  the 
Dead  Sea,  contained  none  that  are  known  save,  probably, 
Kadesh-Barnea,  and  Kabzeel,  the  birthplace  of  David's  loyal 
hero  Benaiah,  who  may  well  have  gained  his  reputation  as  a 
slayer  of  lions  in  this  locality.  The  next  group  of  five  or  six 
cities  contains  New  Hazor  and  Kerioth-Hezron,  the  latter  of 
which  places  has  been  identified  with  the  ruins  of  El-Kuryetein, 
some  fifteen  miles  south  of  Hebron,  and  is  supposed  to  be  the 
home  of  the  traitor  Judas,  whence  he  derived  the  appellation 
Iscariot  (=  ish  Kerioth^  "man  of  Kerioth  ")•  Among  the  nine 
cities  of  the  next  group,  which  lies  more  to  the  north,  occurs 
the  time-honoured  Beersheba,  than  which  no  spot  in  all  the 
land  is  more  fraught  with  patriarchal  interest.  Still  retaining 
the  name  Bir-es-Seba,  still  famous  for  its  wells  of  living  water, 
whose  mouths  are  surrounded  with  antique  curb-stones  scored 
deeply  with  the  action  of  ropes  employed  for  untold  centuries 

»  The  number  in  the  Hebrew  text  of  Josh.  xv.  32  is  said  to  be  twenty- 
nine,  while  there  seem  to  be  at  least  thirty-six  cities  enumerated.  There 
are  clerical  errors  in  many  of  these  lists,  the  sum  total  not  agreeing  with 
the  details.  This  is  owing  partly  to  some  of  the  towns  having  two  names, 
but  chiefly  to  the  use  of  letters  for  numerals. 


146  JOSHUA. 

to  raise  their  prized  treasures  to  the  surface,  in  that  thirsty  land, 
Beersheba  has  never  failed  in  its  utility,  or  faded  from  remem- 
brance, in  all  the  lapse  of  time  since  Abraham  digged  the 
wells  four  thousand  years  ago.  Though  the  province  of  Judah 
extended  originally  some  distance  further  to  the  south,  yet  as 
the  last  important  place  between  the  desert  and  the  uplands, 
Beersheba  is  generally  taken  as  the  boundary,  so  that  the  whole 
country  from  north  to  south  is  expressed  in  the  phrase  "from 
Dan  to  Beersheba."  The  fourth  group,  of  thirteen  towns,  lay 
to  the  west  and  south-west,  and  contained  Ziklag,  a  town  cele- 
brated for  its  connection  with  David.  Such  were  the  cities 
of  the  Negeb,  or  South  land. 

The  next  division  of  the  territory  of  Judah  was  the  valley, 
the  Lowland,  the  Shephelah,  the  strip  of  country  between  the 
central  hills  and  the  sandy  shore  of  the  Mediterranean.  This 
was  rich  in  corn  lands  and  orchards,  and  has  been  called  the 
garden  and  granary  of  Judah, — a  region  of  soft  white  limestone 
hills  undulating  in  low  waves  towards  the  hill  country  on  the 
east,  and  rising  in  fertile  slopes  to  some  500  feet  above  sea 
level.  "The  wide  straths  leading  up  to  the  mountains  are 
especially  fertile  ;  the  valleys  waving  with  corn  and  the  hill-sides 
covered  with  olive  trees,  which  flourish  better  in  this  district 
than  in  any  other."  ^  It  contained  a  large  number  of  towns 
arranged  by  the  narrator  in  four  groups.  First  comes  the  north- 
east portion,  among  whose  fifteen  cities  we  find  two  places 
connected  with  the  history  of  Samson,  Eshtaol  (Eshua),  and 
Zoreah  (Surah),  the  residence  of  Manoah,  on  the  top  of  a  hill 
above  the  Wady  Surar,  about  thirteen  miles  west  of  Jerusalem; 
the  Canaanite  capital,  Jarmuth  ;  David's  refuge,  Adullam  (Aid- 
el- Ma),  on  the  Roman  road  down  the  Wady  Sir,  which  leads  to 
the  Wady  Sunt,  the  valley  of  Elah  where  Goliath  fell  beneath 
the  shepherd's  stone  ;  Socoh,  now  Shuweikeh,  in  the  same 
valley,  two  miles  south  of  Jarmuth  ;  and  Azekah,  mentioned  in 
the  pursuit  after  the  battle  of  Beth-horon.  The  second  group 
comprises  sixteen  cities  situated  wholly  in  the  plain,  among 
which  we  note  the  Canaanite  cities,  Lachish,  Eglon,  and 
Makkedah,  already  spoken  of  during  the  conquest  of  the 
south  ;  and  a  Mizpeh,  which  is  not  the  Mizpeh  of  Benjamin. 
The  third  group,  of  nine  cities,  includes  the  southern  portion 
bordering  on  the  hill  region.  Here  was  Libnah,  a  fruit  of 
*  Geikie,  i.  30. 


ALL0TME5JT  OF  JUDAH   AND   JOSEPH.  147 

Joshua's  prowess ;  Keilah  (Kila),  on  a  hill  three  miles  south- 
east of  Adullam,  the  town  which  David  rescued  from  the 
Philistines  ;  and  Mareshah,  once  fortified  by  Rehoboam,  and 
famous  in  the  time  of  King  Asa  and  in  the  Maccabaean  wars  ;  * 
it  is  doubtless  the  modern  Merash,  half  a  mile  south  of  Beit- 
Jibrim  (Eleutheropolis),  which  was  built  from  its  ruins.  The 
last  group  includes  the  towns  on  the  Philistine  sea-coast,  Ekron 
with  its  dependent  villages,  Ashdod  with  similar  appendages, 
and  Gaza,  even  to  the  "  river  of  Egypt."  The  above  are  the 
places  of  note  in  the  Shephelah. 

The  third  and  most  important  division  of  the  territory  of 
Judah  was  "the  hill  country."  Beginning  in  the  Negeb  below 
Hebron,  it  extends  on  the  north  to  Jerusalem,  being  bounded 
on  the  east  by  the  wilderness  of  the  Dead  Sea,  and  on  the  west 
by  the  Shephelah.  The  highest  point  is  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  Hebron,  and  reaches  nearly  3,500  feet  above  sea  level.  The 
rock  is  limestone,  and  when  disintegrated  and  mixed  with 
vegetable  matter  is  capable  of  high  cultivation,  which  indeed 
the  abundant  traces  of  terraces  and  water-channels  show  that  it 
once  received.  The  appearance  of  the  district  is  now  desolate 
and  forbidding,  though  there  are  still  valleys  here  and  there 
teeming  with  luxuriance,  and  the  ruins  on  every  hill  attest  that 
it  once  owned  and  supported  a  very  numerous  population.  The 
cities  enumerated  in  this  section  are  arranged  in  five  groups. 
The  first  comprises  eleven  cities  situated  in  the  south-western 
portion,  among  which  we  may  note  Jattir,  which  is  found  in 
the  modern  Attir,  a  ruin  thirteen  miles  below  Hebron  ;  another 
Socoh,  close  by,  and,  like  the  town  in  the  lowland,  now  called 
Shuweikeh  ;  Debir,  of  which  we  have  already  spoken  ;  Esh- 
temoh,  now  Es  Semua,  one  of  David's  places  of  refuge  ;  and 
Giloh,  probably  Jala,  six  miles  north  of  Hebron,  the  native  city 
of  Absalom's  counsellor,  Ahitophel,  and  the  scene  of  his  suicide. 
North  of  these  places  comes  the  second  group,  containing  nine 
cities,  among  which  is  reckoned  Hebron.  None  of  the  others 
are  of  any  importance,  though  it  is  noteworthy  that  Beth- 
Tappuah,  "  House  of  Apples,"  has  been  identified  with  TefTfuh,  a 
village  still  conspicuous  for  its  fruit-trees  and  vineyards.  In  the 
next  group,  consisting  of  ten  cities  lying  nearer  the  southern 
desert,  occur  some  which  are  connected  with  the  outlaw  life  of 
David.  Here  is  Maon,  now  Main,  on  a  conical  hill,  four  miles 
»  2  Chron.  xi.  8  ;  xiv.  gff.  ;  i  Mace.  v.  65  ff.  ;  Robinson,  ii.  422. 


148  JOSHUA. 

east  of  Eshtemoh,  and  eight  south  of  Hebron,  where  dwelt  the 
churlish  Nabal  ;  Carmel,  a  mile  to  the  north,  where  Saul  set 
up  the  trophy  of  his  victory  over  the  Amalekites,  and   Nabal 
held  his  fatal  sheep-shearing  feast ;  Ziph,  on  an  eminence  rising 
above  a  maze  of  hills  and  glens,  five  miles  south  of  Hebron,  and 
offering  a  secure  hiding-place    unless  revealed  by  treachery  ; 
Jezreel,  whence   came  David's  wife,  Ahinoam.     Here,  too,  is 
Timnah,  not  the  Timnah  of  Samson's  story,  but  the  place  (now 
Tibna)  whither  the  patriarch  Judah  "went  up"  to  his  sheep- 
shearers,  and  which  lay  nine  miles  west  of  Bethlehem  and  four 
north-east  of  Adullam.^      It  is    remarkable   that    Bethlehem 
itself  does  not  occur  in  the  list  of  these  Judaic  towns.     It  is 
inserted  with  some  others  in  the  Septuagint  catalogue,^  but  there 
are  reasons  for  doubting  the  genuineness  of  the  passage.    We 
are  so  accustomed  to  regard  Bethlehem  with  intense  reverence 
and  honour,  as  the  home  of  David  and  the  birthplace  of  our 
Blessed  Lord,  that  we  expect  to  find  tokens  of  its  eminent  posi- 
tion in  the  records  of  old  time.     But  the  truth  is  far  otherwise. 
It  never  played  any  part  in  history  ;  though  strong  by  nature, 
and  commanding  one  of  the   main  roads   of  the   country,  it 
remained  in  almost  total  obscurity,  and  in  Joshua's  time  had 
not  become  worthy  of  mention.     The  fourth  group  consists  of 
six  cities  on  the  north  of  Hebron  ;   among  them  Halhul,  now 
Hulhul,  in  a  luxuriant  spot  on  the  road  between  Hebron  and 
Jerusalem  ;    Beth-zur,  now    Beit  Sur,  fortified  by  Rehoboam, 
and  often  mentioned  in  the  Maccabaean  period  as  a  frontier 
fortress  of  great  strength  ,-  and  Gedor  (Jedur),  the  home  of  two  of 
David's  heroes  (i  Chron.  xii.  7),  crowning  the  brow  of  a  moun- 
tain above  the  Jerusalem  road.     The  fifth  group  contains  only 
two  cities  on  the  west  of  Jerusalem,  Kirjath-Jearim,  known  in 
early  idolatrous  times  as  Baalah  or  Kirjath-Baal,  and  Rabbah, 
probably  the  ruined  Rubba  in  the  hills  eight  miles  south.     The 
last  group  relates  to  the  places   in  the  wilderness,  Jeshimon, 
that  is,  the  desolate  district  between  the  mountains,  here  ending 
abruptly,  and   the    Dead    Sea.     The   region  is  not   absolutely 

^  Gen.  xxxviii.  12  fif. 

2  In  Josh.  XV.,  between  verses  59  and  60,  the  Greek  Version  inserts  a  list 
of  eleven  cities,  among  which,  placed  between  Theko  and  Phagor,  is  found 
"  Ephratah  which  is  Bethlehem."  Another  of  the  eleven  is  Tekoah,  the 
home  of  the  prophet  Amos.  The  nine  other  cities  are  quite  unknown  to 
history,  but  they  occupy  a  portion  of  the  district  which  would  otherwise  be 
entirely  omitted. 


ALLOTMENT  OF  JUDAH   AND  JOSEPH.  I49 

desert,  but  is  destitute  of  trees,  and  produces  only  scanty  herbage 
where  watercourses  afford  moisture  to  the  parched  ground.  It 
was  but  thinly  inhabited,  and  contained  at  this  time  only  six 
cities  of  any  note  ;  and  of  these  none  are  known  for  certain 
but  Engedi,  "  the  Fountain  of  the  Kid,"  now  Ain  Jidy,  cele- 
brated in  the  history  of  David,  and  described  by  every  Eastern 
traveller.  It  is  situated  on  the  hill  about  half-way  up  the 
western  shore  of  the  Dead  Sea,  opposite  to  the  embouchure  of 
the  Arnon  on  the  other  coast.  Here  several  hundred  feet  up 
the  slope  gushes  forth  a  warm  spring,  fertilizing  the  soil  around 
as  it  makes  its  way  to  the  sea  through  the  plain  whereon  lie 
the  ruins  of  Hazazon-Tamar,  "the  Felling  of  the  Palm  "  ("which 
is  Engedi,"  2  Chron.  xx.  2).  Living  palm-trees,  indeed,  are 
scarce  nowadays,  but  the  trunks,  preserved  by  the  salt  waters, 
lie  everywhere  on  the  sea-shore,  and  testify  to  what  has  been. 
On  this  plain,  about  a  mile  and  a  half  long  and  half  a  mile 
broad,  stood  one  of  the  oldest  cities  in  Syria  ;  here  Chedor- 
laomer  with  his  fierce  Assyrian  troops  overcame  the  five 
Canaanite  kings  ;  here  David  hid  himself  from  the  pursuit  of 
the  relentless  Saul  in  one  of  the  caves  of  the  neighbouring 
precipice.  The  "  City  of  Salt "  is  named  as  situated  in  this 
district,  but  it  has  not  as  yet  been  identified.  At  the  bottom  of 
the  Dead  Sea  there  was  a  locality  called  the  Valley  of  Salt, 
where  the  Edomites  suffered  several  defeats  on  various  occa- 
sions ;'  here  doubtless  this  city  lay. 

Such  was  the  possession  of  Judah  as  originally  defined.  Its 
dimensions  were  afterwards,  as  we  shall  see,  considerably 
diminished  ;  but  its  position  was  by  this  curtailing  materially 
strengthened  ;  and  as  a  hardy  tribe  of  mountaineers  Judah 
helil  its  own,  and  was  not  easily  seduced  by  the  evil  associations 
which  led  its  brethren  astray.  Its  success  in  war  and  future 
pre-eminence  had  been  foretold  by  Jacob,  who  in  his  prophetic 
foresight  had  said  : 

"Judah,  thee  shall  thy  brethren  praise  ; 
Thy  hand  shall  be  upon  the  neck  of  thine  enemies  : 
Thy  father's  sons  shall  bow  down  before  th^e. 
Judah  is  a  lion's  whelp  : 
From  the  prey,  my  son,  thou  art  gone  up  : 
He  stooped  down,  he  couched  as  a  lion, 
And  as  a  honess  :  who  shall  rouse  him  up  ? " 


"  2  Sam.  viii.  13  ;  2  Kings  xiv.  7  ;       Chron.  xviii.  12. 


ISO  JOSHUA. 

Then  follows  the  passage  which  a  consensus  of  authorities 
has  determined  to  be  a  Messianic  prediction  of  a  very  remark- 
able character,  taking  Shiloh  as  a  personal  name  of  the  Mes- 
siah. The  matter  cannot  be  here  discussed  ;  but  it  may  be 
observed  that  the  patriarch  is  designating  generally  the  future 
fate  of  the  tribe,  and  not  specifying  any  individual  member 
thereof,  and  that  the  name  Shiloh  is  nowhere  else  applied  to 
the  Messiah.  Of  course  such  inspired  utterances  have  a  reach 
and  a  meaning  far  beyond  their  apparent  scope  ;  but  putting 
oneself  in  Jacob's  place  one  sees  that  he  is  announcing  only 
Judah's  future  headship,  how  that  he  shall  lead  the  nation  in 
the  conquest  of  the  Promised  Land,  obtain  the  submission  of 
the  peoples,  and  dwell  securely  in  a  very  fertile  portion.*  Thus 
the  blessing  runs  : 

**  The  sceptre  shall  not  d^^nart  from  Judah, 
Nor  the  ruler's  staff  from  between  his  feet, 
Until  that  which  is  his  shall  come, 
And  the  obedience  of  the  peoples  shall  be  unto  him." 

Then  the  patriarch  speaks  of  the  tribe's  temporal  prosperity, 
of  its  herds,  its  vineyards,  its  pastures  : 

"  Binding  his  ass  unto  the  vine, 
And  his  ass's  colt  unto  the  choice  vine, 
He  washeth  his  very  garments  in  wine, 
And  his  vesture  in  the  blood  of  grapes ; 
His  eyes  are  red  with  wine. 
His  teeth  are  white  with  milk." 

Moses'  blessing  is  briefer,  but  grand  and  mysterious  : 

"  Hear,  Lord,  the  voice  of  Judah, 
And  bring  him  in  unto  his  people  ; 
Let  his  hands  be  sufficient  for  him, 
And  be  thou  a  help  to  him  against  his  enemies." 

This  may  be  a  prediction  in  the  form  of  a  prayer  that  Judah 
may  always  return  in  safety  from  warlike  exploits,  being  upheld 
by  the  power  of  God  ;  but  it  may  also  refer  to  the  efficacy  of 
the  prayer  of  faith,  how  when  the  hands  are  raised  in  earnest 
supplication  other  aid  is  not  requisite. 

»  See  Briggs,  "  Messianic  Prophecy,"  94  flf. ;  and  Dillmann  on  Gen.  xlix. 
10  ft.  in  "  Kurzgef.  Exeg.  Handb." 


ALLOTMENT  OF  JUDAH  AND  JOSEPH.  I51 

The  fortunes  of  Judah  are  told  in  the  whole  history  of  the 
chosen  people,  blending  at  length  in  that  of  the  Christian 
Church. 

Having  thus  arranged  the  inheritance  of  the  royal  tribe  of 
Judah,  Joshua  and  the  commissioners  proceeded  to  allot  its 
possession  to  the  great  house  of  Joseph.  Though  this  family 
formed  two  tribes,  viz.,  Ephraim  and  Manasseh,  a  single  lot 
was  all  that  fell  to  them,  the  half-tribe  of  Manasseh  being 
closely  allied  to  Ephraim  to  prevent  the  undue  weakening  of 
the  former,  if,  in  its  divided  state,  it  were  far  separated  from  its 
brother  tribe.  The  boundaries  of  this  portion  are  not  stated 
■with  the  precision  observed  in  the  case  of  Judah,  and  it  is 
"difficult  to  fix  them  with  any  certainty,  but  the  following  brief 
account  will  be  found  to  be  best  authenticated  by  the  text  of 
Scripture  and  recent  explorations.  The  northern  boundary  is 
not  distinctly  given ;  the  other  limits  are  more  easily  deter- 
mined. Starting  from  the  Jordan  immediately  opposite  to 
Jericho,  the  southern  boundary  ran  to  "  the  water  of  Jericho,'* 
the  Sultan's  Spring,  the  scene  of  Elisha's  miracle,  and  then 
by  one  of  the  ravines,  the  V/ady  Harith,  or  the  Wady  Suweinit, 
tip  into  the  hills  round  Bethel,  thence  to  the  Lov/er  Beth-horon, 
past  Ataroth-Adar  (Khurbet  Dariah),  a  mile  to  the  south-west, 
unto  the  Canaanite  city  Gezer,  and  from  thence  to  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea  at  Jaffa.  Such  was  the  southern  border ;  the 
Jordan  valley,  up  to  a  spot  opposite  Bethshan,  formed  the 
eastern  limit,  the  sea-coast  to  Carmel  the  western.  Along  the 
watershed  between  Bethshan  and  Carmel,  the  northern  line 
lay,  but  it  is  impossible  to  define  it  accurately,  as  it  seems  to 
liave  been  constantly  altered,  the  cities  at  one  time  assigned  to 
Manasseh  being  at  another  attributed  to  some  adjacent  tribe. 
It  is  calculated  that  the  whole  territory  extended  about  fifty-five 
miles  from  east  to  west,  and  seventy  from  north  to  south,  a  dis- 
trict equal  to  the  area  of  our  two  English  counties  of  Norfolk 
and  Suffolk-  It  was  emphatically  a  good  land,  in  a  secure  and 
central -position,  rugged  indeed,  but  "broken  up  into  wide  plains 
in  the  heart  of  the  mountains,  and  diversified  both  in  hill  and 
valley  by  streams  of  running  water  and  by  continuous  tracts 
of  verdure  and  vegetation.'  The  ancestral  blessing  was  indeed 
£ilfiiied  in  Joseph's  allotment : 

^  Stanley,  "  Sinai  and  Palestine/  229. 


152  JOSHUA^ 

"  Blessed  of  the  Lord  be  his  land  ; 
For  the  preciovjs  thirds  of  heaven,  for  the  dew. 
And  for  the  deep  that  coucheth  beneath. 
And  for  the  predo^js  things  of  the  fruits  of  the  sun. 
And  for  the  precious  rhiBgs  of  the  growth  of  the  moons» 
And  for  the  chief  things  of  the  ancient  mountains, 
And  for  the  precious  things  of  the  everlasting  hills. 
And  for  the  precious  things  of  the  earth  and  the  fulness  thereof^ 
And  the  good  v^ill  of  him  that  dwelt  in  the  bush  (Exod.  iii.  2)  ; 
Let  the  blessing  come  upon  the  head  of  Joseph, 

And  upon  the  crown  of  the  head  of  him  that  was  separated  from  fins 
brethren." 

This  goodly  mfientance  was  divided  between  Ephraim  and 
the  half-tribe  of  Manasseh,  the  former  receiving  the  southern 
and  smaller  portion.  With  the  arrogance  and  pride  which  this 
clan  always  exhibited,  they  were  not  satisfied  with  the  portion 
assigned  to  them.  Relying,  perhaps,  on  Joshua's  supposed 
partiality  for  his  own  tribe  of  Ephraim,  they  come  ta  him  with 
a  complaint.  "Why  hast  thou  given  me,"  they  ask,  "  but  one 
lot  and  one  portion  to  inherit,  seeing  I  am  a  great  people, 
forasmuch  as  hitherto-  the  Lord  hath  blessed  me?"  There 
is  a  delicate  irony  in  Joshua's  reply  which  the  objectors  dc  not 
fully  appreciate  :  "  If  thou  be  a  great  people,  get  thee  up-  to 
tbe  forest,,  and  cut  down  for  thyself  there  in  the  land  of  the 
Perizzites  and  of  the  Rephaim ;  since  the  bill  country  of 
Ephraim  is  too  narrow  for  thee."  If  you  are  as  numerous  and 
as  powerful  as  you  boast  to  be,  take  care  of  yourselves ;:  seize 
the  vast  central  forests,  make  clearings  and  settle  there.  This 
answer  did  not  content  the  remonstrants ;  they  murmur  that 
there  was  aot  room  for  them  in  the  mountains,  and  yet  that 
they  could  not  settle  in  the  plains  because  of  the  war-chariots 
of  the  Canaanites,  against  which  they  couM  not  hope  to  contend 
successfully.  But  such  a  plea  found  no  favour  with  the  brave 
and  devout  Joshua.  If  they  were  the  people  they  supposed 
themselves  to  be,  they  must  win  further  ground'  by  their  own 
exertions,  trusting  in  the  Lord,  and  undismayed  by  the  chariots 
of  iron  which  seemed  so  formidable,  but  had  proved  no 
hindrance  to  complete  victory  in  former  wars.  The  boast  of 
the  descendants  of  Joseph  was  indeed  not  ill-founded.  At  the 
first  census  they  outnumbered  every  tribe  but  Judah ;  at  the 
second  numbering  in  the  plains  of  Moab,  while  Judah's  warriors 
amounted  to  76^5004  the  Manassites  and  Ephraimites  together 


ALLOTMENT  OF  JUDAH  AND  JOSEPH.  1 53 

were  85,200.  But  in  those  forty  years  Ephraim  had  decreased 
from  40,500  to  32,500,  and  Manasseh  had  risen  from  32,200 
to  52,700,  so  that  the  latter  had  a  motive  for  eiTecting  a  settle- 
ment of  part  of  its  superabundant  population  in  the  east,  but 
was  thoroughly  unreasonable  in  demanding  more  territory  from 
Joshua  in  the  present  distribution,  as  its  inheritance  was  quite 
in  proportion  to  its  numbers.  But  the  jealousy  of  this  clan,  its 
keen  remembrance  of  Jacob's  blessing,  re-echoed  by  Moses, 
its  acknowledged  pre-eminence  since  the  Exodus,  disposed  it 
to  be  exacting  and  proud,  and  led  to  that  disastrous  rivalry 
which  had  such  fatal  consequences  in  after  years. 

The  southern  boundary  of  Ephraim  has  been  already  noticed. 
For  the  northern  limit,  Shechem  (though  itself  in  Manasseh), 
is  taken  as  the  centre,  and  a  line  drawn  from  that  westward 
to  the  Mediterranean,  following  the  brook  Kanah  which  flows 
from  the  south  of  Mount  Gerizim,  and  joining  the  Aujeh  river 
enters  the  sea  between  Joppa  and  Caesarea ;  eastward  from 
Shechem  the  boundary,  making  for  the  Jordan,  passed  Yassuf 
with  its  springs  of  water,  eight  miles  off,  Ain  Tana,  and  Yanun, 
and  reached  the  Jordan  valley  at  the  prominent  height  of  Kurn 
Sartabeh,  which  thrusts  itself  into  the  Arabah  five  miles  above 
Jericho.  It  was  a  small  territory,  with  an  area  only  of  three 
hundred  square  miles,  but  better  watered  than  all  other  districts 
in  Western  Palestine,  and  therefore  very  productive.  Very  few 
cities  are  mentioned  as  situated  in  this  portion.  Shechem,  on  its 
border,  has  already  been  described.  But  there  are  two  other 
places  of  surpassing  interest.  One  of  these  is  Shiloh,  so  famous 
in  after  time  as  the  abode  of  Eli  and  Samuel,  and  now  to 
become  for  many  years  the  shrine  and  central  place  of  worship 
for  all  Israel.  It  lay  on  the  road  between  Bethel  and  Shechem, 
ten  miles  from  the  former,  twelve  from  the  latter,  in  an  un- 
attractive neighbourhood,  on  a  tell  which  rises  at  the  base  of 
the  hills  where  two  valleys  meet.  A  late  traveller  ^  describes 
it  thus  :  "  The  ruins  of  Shiloh  (the  modern  Seilun)  stand  on  a 
low  hill  covered  all  over  with  a  deep  bed  of  loose  stones.  Belts 
of  the  chalky  rock  girdled  the  surrounding  hills  to  the  top, 
the  strata  lying  horizontally,  and  boulders  strewing  the  rounded 
summits.  The  natural  terraces  formed  by  the  rock-beds  were 
here  and  there  planted  with  fruit-trees,  but  often  left  to  thorn 

^  Dr.  Geikie,  "Holy  Land  and  the  Bible,"  ii.  198  ff.  See  "Samuel 
and  Saul,"  p.  4. 


154  JOSHUA. 

and  scrub.  .  .  .  Riding  back  to  the  ruins  themselves,  we  found 
them  on  the  breast  of  a  low  swell,  beside  the  poor  modern 
village.  .  .  .  The  crown  of  the  low  hill  was  specially  interesting, 
for  it  is  covered  with  very  old  low  walls,  divided  as  though  into 
the  basements  of  many  chambers  of  different  sizes.  Some  of 
the  stones  were  hewn,  others  unhewn,  and  some  of  these  latter 
were  very  large.  The  outline  of  the  whole  was  an  irregular 
square  of,  say,  about  eight  feet,  with  projections  on  two  sides ; 
the  walls  being  everywhere  very  thick.  Could  it  be  that  these 
were  the  stone  foundations  on  which,  as  we  know,  the  ancient 
tabernacle  was  raised  .''...  No  spot  in  Central  Palestine  could 
be  more  secluded  than  this  early  sanctuary."  "Moreover,*' 
says  Dr.  Tristram,^  "  it  was  a  central  point  for  all  Israel,  equi- 
distant from  north  and  south,  easily  accessible  to  the  trans- 
Jordanic  tribes,  and  in  the  heart  of  that  hill  country  which 
Joshua  first  subdued,  and  which  remained,  to  the  end  of  Israel's 
history,  the  district  least  exposed  to  the  attacks  of  Canaanitish 
or  foreign  invaders."  Sir  R.  Temple  on  his  route  from  Bethel 
to  Nablus  speaks  thus  of  Shiloh  ^  :  "  After  riding  a  few  miles 
we  ascend  a  slight  ridge  and  behold  an  irregular  plain  sur- 
rounded by  low  hills.  This  is  the  Shiloh  of  Scripture.  Most 
travellers  will  probably  be  disappointed  at  their  first  sight  of 
a  place  the  name  of  which  has  been  familiar  to  them  from 
their  earliest  childhood.  The  surrounding  hills  are  featureless, 
and  monotony  pervades  the  scene.  Some  of  the  hill-sides 
must  once  have  been  dotted  with  well-built  houses,  perhaps 
the  dwellings  of  the  priests  and  their  office-bearers.  The 
peasants  have  now  made  use  of  the  ruins  in  constructing  the 
terraces  for  their  cultivation  ;  otherwise,  the  long-stretching 
slopes  are  bare  of  trees,  shrubs,  or  herbage.  The  plain  has 
some  patches  of  cultivation,  where  the  young  wheat  is  just 
beginning  to  spring  up.  Riding  over  this  little  plain  from  its 
southern  end,  we  reach  at  the  north  end  a  rocky  platform, 
slightly  elevated.  .  .  .  Here,  on  the  plateau,  stood  the  taber- 
nacle containing  the  Ark  of  the  Covenant.  There,  on  the  plain 
below,  were  assembled  the  twelve  tribes  under  Joshua,  while 
the  land  was  being  apportioned  among  them.  There  also,  in 
succeeding  years,  the  annual  festival  was  held  around  the  ark. 
...  Its  situation,  in  the  bosom  of  the  mountains,  protected 
it  from  the  hostile  races  on  the  east  and  on  the  west."  The 
»  "  Land  of  Israel,"  162.  «  "  Palestine  Illustrated,"  149  f. 


ALLOTMENT  OF  JUDAH   AND  JOSEPH.  1 55 

Other  interesting  site  in  Ephraim  is  Timnath-Serah,  or  Timnath- 
heres,  as  it  is  called  in  Judg.  ii.  7,  which  became  the  inheritance 
of  Joshua  and  his  family.  If,  as  Conder  supposes,  this  is  the 
modern  Kefr  Haris,  situated  in  a  rugged  and  desolate  region 
ten  miles  south-west  of  Shechem,  it  is  quite  in  ac  ''ordance 
with  Joshua's  humble  and  self-sacrificing  nature  tha*'  .le  should 
have  been  satisfied  with  so  unpromising  a  loj^ "  F^ery  name 
of  which  ("  the  portion  that  remains  ")  impli^  •  ^^  ^it  had  not 
been  thought  worthy  to  be  included  in  the  prev  distribution. 

Others,  however,  find  the  great  leader's  home  and  tomb  at 
Tibneh,  nine  miles  further  south,  where  there  exists  a  most 
remarkable  sepulchre,  to  which  we  shall  have  to  refer  later. 
It  is  noteworthy  that  at  Kefr  Haris  there  are  still  shown  three 
holy  places,  two  of  which  are  associated  with  Joshua,  viz.,  Neby 
Nun,  where  we  see  the  name  of  Joshua's  father,  and  Neby 
Lusha,  which  is  plainly  a  corruption  of  Joshua.^  There  is  also 
in  this  territory  a  Gilgal,  five  miles  south-west  of  Shiloh  and 
seven  north  of  Bethel,  which  is  connected  with  Elijah's  last 
days  (2  Kings  ii.  i),  and  which  must  not  be  confounded  with 
the  first  encampment  of  the  Israelites  in  the  Jordan  valley,  nor 
with  the  Gilgal  of  Josh.  xii.  23,  which  lay  in  the  plain  of  Sharon 
on  the  brook  Kanah. 

North  of  Ephraim  lay  the  inheritance  of  Manasseh.  Its 
boundaries,  which  have  been  already  mentioned,  inclosed 
an  area  of  1,300  square  miles,  containing  many  spots  of 
abnormal  fertility.  The  land  was  divided  into  ten  portions, 
in  order  to  be  allotted  to  the  six  families  of  this  part  of  the 
great  tribe  of  Manasseh.  The  male  descendants  were  five  in 
number  and  received  five  shares  ;  the  sixth  family,  that  of 
Hepher,  had  no  male  heirs,  but  the  last  representative,  Zelo- 
phehad,  had  left  five  daughters  ;  how  was  the  inheritance  to  be 
allotted  ?  Were  they  to  be  passed  over  in  the  distribution,  and 
was  their  father's  name  thus  to  perish  ?  These  women  come 
before  Eleazar  and  Joshua,  and  plead  their  cause.  They 
remind  the  commissioners  how  their  case  had  already  been 
provided  for  by  Moses,  who  had  enacted  that  if  a  man  die  and 
leave  no  son,  his  inheritance  should  pass  to  his  daughter  (Numb, 
xxvii.  8).  The  plea  is  immediately  allowed,  and  the  petitioners, 
each  of  them,  received  their  share  of  the  land,  and  the  husbands 
whom  they  married  from  the  same  tribe  became  the  repre- 
'  "  Memoirs,"  ii.  374. 


156  JOSHUA. 

sentatives  of  the  family.  We  see  here  one  of  the  many  points 
in  which  the  Jewish  law  contrasts  favourably  with  Eastern 
institutions.  Justice  to  all,  whatever  their  sex  or  condition, 
was  a  marked  characteristic  of  Hebrew  legislation  ;  and  im- 
partially.'; in  treating  the  claims  of  women  naturally  followed. 
One  of  'bg  most  valuable  of  Manasseh's  possessions  was 
Carmel,  w  "^s  forests,  olive-yards,  and  vineyards.  The  great 
plain  of  E««*'  '^n,  which  runs  from  the  valley  of  the  Jordan 
in  a  north-w  ^t^iy  direction  to  the  Bay  of  Acre,  is  bounded  on 
the  south  foY  the  last  three  parts  of  its  course  by  the  range 
of  Carmel,  which  culminates  in  the  well-known  promontory 
which  formed  the  scene  of  Elijah's  sacrifice.  We  have  already 
(chap,  vii.)  spoken  of  the  "excellency  of  Carmel"  which  made 
it  a  type  of  exuberant  fertihty,  resisting,  as  it  does,  the  drought 
of  summon,  and  maintaining  its  clothing  of  richest  green, -in  happy 
contrast  to  the  parched  and  withered  aspect  of  other  localities. 
To  this  day  the  remains  of  rock-hewn  presses  and  vats  attest 
the  former  abundance  of  grapes  and  olives  ;  while  the  presence 
on  the  range  of  every  flower  that  blooms  in  Palestine  shows 
that  the  old  beauty  and  fertility  have  not  deserted  it  in  modern 
times.  In  Manasseh's  lot  there  fell  some  important  cities.  Of 
Shechem  we  have  already  spoken  ;  others,  which  became  cele- 
brated in  later  days,  had  either  not  yet  been  built  or  were  still 
insignificant.  Such  were  Samaria,  and  Tirzah,  the  beautiful, 
both  destined  to  be  capital  cities.  Their  description  and  fate 
will  be  found  in  the  later  history  of  Israel.  Other  cities  which 
appertained  to  Manasseh,  though  not  all  of  them  actually 
within  his  borders,  were  these.  At  the  north-east  extremity, 
twelve  miles  south  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  and  four  from  the 
Jordan,  lay  Bethshan,  in  after  years  known  as  Scythopolis, 
and  now  as  Beisan.  It  stood  in  a  commanding  situation  on 
the  crest  of  a  slope  about  three  hundred  feet  above  the  Jordan 
valley.  On  the  west  there  is  a  stretch  of  verdant  plain  of  some 
miles  in  length,  watered  by  the  stream  of  Ain  Jalud,  which 
descends  from  Jezreel.  The  old  city  was  some  two  miles  or 
more  in  circumference,  and  was  surrounded  by  walls  of  black 
basalt.  It  had  been  in  existence  many  years  before  Joshua's 
time,  as  it  is  one  of  the  places  visited  by  the  Mohar  in  the 
reign  of  Rameses  II.,  king  of  Egypt,  the  royal  officer  who  was 
sent  on  some  public  business  into  Palestine,  and  has  left  in  a 
papyrus  still  extant  a  curious  account  of  his  expedition.     The 


ALLOTMENT  OF  JUDAH   AND  JOSEPH.  1 57 

ignominious  exposure  of  the  corpses  of  Saul  and  his  sons  on  the 
walls  of  this  town,  and  their  brave  recovery  by  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Jabesh-Gilead,  belong  to  subsequent  history.  Another 
of  Manasseh's  towns,  though  really  in  the  territory  of  Asher, 
was  Ibleara  or  Bileam,  a  place  not  certainly  identified,  but 
iprobably  to  be  found  in  Jelameh,  midway  between  Jenira 
^Eogannim)  and  JezreeL  A  third  city  is  Endor,  the  scene 
of  Saul's  necromantic  episode.  It  was  built  at  the  spring 
{ain)  of  Dor,  some  three  miles  north  of  Shunem,  at  the  foot  of 
the  northern  face  of  Little  Hermon,  and  two  miles  east  of  Nain, 
where  the  only  son  of  the  widow  was  recalled  from  the  grave 
by  the  voice  of  Jesus.  Of  Taanach  and  Megiddo  we  have 
already  spoken  ;  we  hear  of  them  again  in  the  times  of  the 
Judges  and  the  Kings,  The  former,  still  called  Tannuk,  lies  in 
the  rich  plain  of  Esdraelon,  seven  miles  south-west  of  Jezreel. 
Megiddo,  which  commanded  one  of  the  passes  from  the  north 
into  the  hill  country,  has  been  usually  identified  with  the  Legio 
of  Easebius  and  Jerome,  the  modern  El-Lejjun,  situated  a  few 
miles  from  Taanach,  where  the  plain  begins  to  rise  gently 
towards  the  low  range  of  wooded  hills  which  connect  Carmei 
and  what  we  should  call  the  mountains  of  Samaria.'  Conder, 
as  we  have  mentioned  above,  prefers  to  place  it  at  Mujeddah, 
four  miles  south-west  of  Bethshan,  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Gil  boa, 
a  place  holding  the  eastern  entrance  to  the  plain,  where  exten- 
sive ruins  and  a  copious  supply  of  water  mark  the  site  of  a 
large  and  ancient  town.  The  above  five  cities,  together  with 
Dor,  were  assigned  to  the  Manassites,  but  were  never  held  by 
them  ;  and  Joshua's  ironical  advice,  that  they  should  use  their 
power  in  increasing  their  possessions,  seems  to  have  met  with 
no  response  from  these  people,  who  wished  to  reap  the  rewards 
of  conquest  without  the  fatigue  and  danger  of  battle.  Another 
site  in  Manasseh  worthy  of  mention  is  Ophrah  of  the  Abiez- 
rites,  celebrated  some  years  later  in  the  history  of  Gideon,^  and 
now  represented  by  the  village  Ferrata,  six  miles  south-west  of 
Shechem.  The  subsequent  history  of  the  tribe  of  Joseph  is 
the  tale  of  the  great  apostasy  which  culminated  in  the  Babyj 
lonish  captivity. 

Hitherto,  from  the  time  that  the  Jordan  was  crossed,  during 
all  the  progress  of  the  conquest,  up  to  the  present  moment,  the 
tabernacle  and  ark  had  remained  in  the  permanent  camp  at 
»  Robinson,  "  Bib.  Res."  iii.  177  ff.  =  Judges  vi.  11. 


5^. 


ISS  JOSHUA. 

Gilgal,  and  the  public  exercise  of  religion  had  not  been  main- 
tained in  due  form  and  order.  It  was  time  that  this  state  of 
things  was  altered.  The  settlement  of  the  two  leading  tribes, 
and  the  peaceable  possession  of  the  very  heart  of  the  country, 
pointed  to  the  feasibility  of  establishing  a  central  place  of 
Divine  worship  which  might  also  be  a  centre  of  tribal  union. 
Already  there  had  appeared  tokens  of  jealousy  and  disintegra- 
tion, murmuring  and  division  of  interests  ;  these  evils  could  be 
averted  only  by  a  revival  of  national  religion,  a  public  acknow- 
ledgment of  the  sovereignty  of  God,  and  a  general  recognition 
of  the  outward  symbol  of  His  presence.  Moses  had  looked 
forward  to  this  time ;  he  had  enjoined  the  people  to  use  the 
first  opportunity  of  rest  from  war  m  establishing  a  sanctuary, 
"a  place  which  the  Lord  should  choose  to  cause  His  name  to 
dwell  there,"  and  to  use  that  spot  alone  for  all  their  sacrifices 
and  offerings.^  Alvvays  a  pattern  of  strict  obedience,  Joshua 
now  assembles  the  whole  congregation,  and  with  solemn 
ceremonial  brings  up  the  holy  tabernacle,  together  with  the 
ark  and  all  that  appertained  thereto,  and  erects  it  at  Shiloh. 
The  reason  why  the  primeval  sanctuary  of  Bethel  was  not 
chosen  can  only  be  conjectured.  Probably  it  was  not  per- 
manently occupied  at  this  time,  and  its  late  associations  that 
connected  it  with  violence  and  bloodshed  rendered  it  unfit  to 
be  the  national  shrine,  the  symbol  of  rest  and  worship.  What 
was  the  edifice  which  received  this  venerable  memorial  we  are 
not  told.  Probably  the  level  space,  scarped  on  the  rock  at 
Seilun,  and  still  plainly  traceable,  was  surrounded  with  a  low 
wall,  over  which  area  the  folds  of  the  tabernacle  were  thrown. 
Thus  the  tent  of  meeting,  the  monument  of  the  weary  pilgrim- 
age in  the  wilderness,  had  found  a  fixed  home,  even  as  Israel 
itself  had  passed  from  a  nomadio  to  a  settled  life.  Hence- 
forward the  regular  sacrifices  and  ceremonies  were  resumed, 
and  to  this  easily  accessible  shrine  all  the  people  gathered  at 
the  stated  times  for  worship  and  purification  and  sacred  rites. 
This  was  the  desire  and  intention  of  Joshua  in  establishing  the 
Yeligious  centre  here.  How  miserably  this  design  was  frustrated 
in  after  years  the  history  of  Shiloh  shows. 

*  Deut.  xii.  lo,  ii. 


CHAPTER   X. 

ALLOTMENTS    OF    THE     REMAINING    TRIBES, 

Renewed  arrangements  for  completing  the  partition— The  Lot  of  Benjamin 
—Characteristics  of  Benjamin— Boundaries  of  the  territory— Physical 
peculiarities— Its  cities  ;  Ekron  ;  Gaba  ;  Ramah— Fortunes  of  Ben- 
jamin—The Lot  of  Simeon— Characteristics— Cities  assigned;  Moladah ; 
Ziklag  ;  Beth-Marcaboth— Fate  of  the  tribe— The  Lot  of  Zebiilun— 
Limits  of  the  territory— Places  on  the  border-lines- Character  of  the 
tribe  and  its  territory— The  Lot  of  Issachar- Plain  of  Esdraelon— 
Cities  of  Issachar  ;  Jezreel ;  Shunem  ;  Engannim— Characteristics  and 
fortunes  of  the  tribe— The  Lot  of  Asher— Limits  of  the  territory— The 
Crocodile  River- Towns  of  Asher  ;  Hammon  ;  Tyre— Characteristics 
and  fortunes  of  the  tribe— The  Lot  of  Naphtali  ;  its  limits— Cities  of 
Naphtali ;  Tiberias  ;  Chinnereth  ;  Kedesh  ;  Magdala— Nature  of  the 
country— Fortunes  of  the  tribe— The  Lot  of  Dan— Limits  of  the  terri- 
tory—Its towns:  Ajalon  ;  Mahaneh-Dan— Expedition  to  the  north- 
Seizure  of  Laish— Characteristics  and  history  of  the  tribe— Joshua's 
inheritance. 

Five  of  the  twelve  tribes  had  now  received  their  inheritance. 
The  Levites  were  not  destined  to  be  settled  in  this  manner ; ' 
the  Lord  God  was  their  inheritance.  The  remaining  seven 
had  to  be  provided  for.  These  seemed  to  be  in  no  hurry  to 
secure  settled  homes.  Either  the  nomad  life  had  still  superior 
charms  for  them,  or  they  shrunk  from  the  labour  and  danger 
which  were  involved  in  the  occupation  of  their  possessions  and 
the  extermination  of  the  old  inhabitants.  The  houses  of  Judah 
and  Joseph  were  selfishly  satisfied  with  the  inheritance  which 
had  fallen  to  them,  and  made  no  movement  to  effect  the 
settlement  of  the  weaker  tribes,  or  else  were  so  thoroughly 
occupied  with  their  own  concerns  that  they  had  no  time  to 
bestow  on  the  affairs  of  their  brethren.  It  was  expedient  that 
'  See  Josh.  xiii.  14,  33  ;  xviii.  7. 


l6o  JOSHUA. 

these  should  be  roused  from  their  apathy,  and  take  their  share 
in  the  country,  Joshua  could  not  rest  till  the  work  of  allot- 
ment was  completed.  To  his  active  mind,  which  saw  in  every 
duty  an  immediate  and  imperative  claim,  backwardness  in  the 
execution  of  a  heavenly  design  was  a  grievous  sin.  He  chides 
these  indolent  tribes  :  "  How  long  are  ye  slack,"  he  asks,  indig- 
nantly, "  to  go  in  to  possess  the  land  which  the  Lord  God  of 
your  fathers  hath  given  you?"  The  longer  they  delayed,  the 
more  loath  would  they  be  to  alter  their  mode  of  life,  and  the 
more  serious  would  be  the  difficulties  in  the  way  of  occupation. 
But  before  this  land  could  be  equitably  divided  a  survey  must 
be  made,  and  a  report  prepared  as  a  guide  in  the  distribution. 
To  obviate  all  jealousy,  and  to  insure  perfect  impartiality, 
Joshua  directed  these  seven  tribes  to  choose  twenty-one  com- 
missioners, three  from  each  tribe,  who  should  examine  the 
country  still  unassigned,  note  the  physical  characteristics  of 
each  district  and  the  number  and  size  of  the  various  cities 
situated  therein,  and  present  their  report  when  completed  to 
him  at  Shiloh.  Then  the  lot  should  determine  the  position 
of  each  tribe,  while  the  information  obtained  by  the  survey 
would  enable  Joshua  and  the  elders  to  apportion  the  territory 
in  accordance  with  their  population  and  habits.  The  proposed 
arrangement  was  duly  carried  into  effect,  and  on  the  return 
of  the  commissioners,  who  completed  their  work  without 
hindrance  from  the  old  inhabitants,  the  lot  was  cast  with  the 
utmost  formality  before  the  Lord  in  the  tabernacle,  and  the 
seven  portions  into  which  the  country  was  divided  were 
severally  distributed.  On  further  investigation  it  was  found 
that  the  allotments  of  Judah  and  Joseph  needed  some  changes 
and  modifications,  which  were  accordingly  made  without  dis- 
pute or  difficulty. 

From  the  shaken  urn  the  first  lot  that  came  forth  was  that  of 
Benjamin,  and  his  place  was  between  Judah  and  Ephraim,  thus 
forming  the  link  between  the  two  great  rival  houses  of  Joseph 
and  Judah,  even  as  in  old  ancestral  times  the  long-estranged 
brothers  were  united  by  their  mutual  affection  for  their  father's 
youngest  and  best  beloved  son.  In  the  encampment  in  the. 
wilderness  Benjamin  had  always  been  associated  with  Ephrain> 
and  Manasseh,  these  three  clans  guarding  the  west,  as  Judah,. 
Issachar,  and  Zebuiun  defended  the  east  ;  and  up  to  th^tim!e> 
of  Dauid,  Benjamin  attached  itself  closely  to  Ephr^^irp,,  and; 


ALLOTMENTS  OF  THE   REMAINING  TRIBES.  l6l 

formed  the  real  fighting  portion  of  the  confederacy  of  Joseph. 
"Benjamin  is  a  wolf  that  ravineth,"  said  Jacob  ; 

"  In  the  morning  he  shall  devour  the  prey, 
And  at  even  he  shall  divide  the  spoil." 

Thus  did  the  patriarch  adumbrate  the  warlike  character  of 
this  tribe,  and  the  remarkable  skill  in  military  exercises  which 
it  displayed.  The  men  who  were  so  expert  in  the  use  of  sling 
and  bow,  who  could  make  the  left  hand  do  the  work  of  the 
right,  who  were  daunted  by  no  peril,  and  rejoiced  in  the  fierce 
onslaught,  and  were  familiar  with  all  the  usages  of  war,  such 
men,  though  comparatively  few  in  number,  were  of  great  value 
and  importance,  and  their  adhesion  to  any  cause  afforded  the 
best  promise  of  success.  The  blessing  of  Moses  referred  to 
something  higher  and  nobler  than  military  prowess,  pointing 
to  Benjamin's  connection  with  Judah  and  participation  in  the 
Divine  Presence  through  the  temple  at  Jerusalem.  Moses 
speaks  of  him  as  a  beloved  son  carried  by  his  father  : 

*'  The  beloved  of  the  Lord  shall  dwell  in  safety  by  him  ; 
He  covereth  him  all  the  day  long, 
And  he  dvvelleth  between  his  shoulders." 

And  it  has  been  noted  that  the  lot  of  Benjamin  fell  in  Jerusa- 
lem ''between  th6  shoulders,"  i.e.,  the  rocky  sides  of  the 
ravines  which  encompass  the  city  on  the  west,  south,  and  east. 
Starting  from  the  Jordan  on  the  east,  the  northern  boundary 
of  Benjamin  coincided  with  the  southern  of  Ephraim,  as  its 
southern  followed  the  line  of  the  north  of  Judah.  Of  the 
Arabah  itself  Benjamin  held  a  stretch  of  five  miles  from  the 
plain  of  Jericho  to  the  point  where  the  Aujah  falls  in.  The 
territory  extended  westward  past  Beth-horon  and  as  far  as  the 
Canaanite  city  of  Gezer,  where,  turning  south,  it  met  the 
southern  boundary  at  Kirjath-Jearim.  Jerusalem  itself,  as  we 
have  seen,  lay  on  the  boundary  line.  It  was  but  a  small 
territory,  a  parallelogram  containing  some  four  hundred  square 
miles,  not  nearly  as  large  as  Bedfordshire,  but  of  importance 
by  no  means  in  proportion  to  its  size.  This  importance  arose 
from  its  physical  peculiarities  and  from  the  notable  cities  which 
were  situated  within  its  confines.  The  general  level  of  the 
district  is  very  high,  ranging  from  2,000  feet  above  sea  level  to 

12 


l62  JOSHUA. 

3,000  above  the  Arabah  ;  and  it  is  remarkable  for  the  number 
of  more  or  less  isolated  eminences  upon  which  strong  cities 
were  built,  or  which  played  a  distinguished  part  in  the  tribe's 
history.  Hence  we  find  many  names  of  places  which  indicate 
this  peculiarity,  as  Gibeah.("hill  "),  Mizpeh  ("watch-tower"), 
Ramah  ("height"),  all  of  which  were  of  strategic  importance. 
The  chief  passes,  both  from  the  plains  of  Philistia  and  from 
the  Jordan  valley  into  the  interior,  are  found  in  the  lot  of 
Benjamin,  the  former  of  gradual  and  gentle  ascent,  the  latter 
rocky  and  precipitous.  Held  by  warlike  mountaineers,  these 
secured  the  independence  of  the  inhabitants.  It  was  up  the 
pass  behind  Jericho,  as  we  have  seen,  that  Joshua  and  his  host 
marched  to  Ai  and  Bethel ;  it  was  down  the  pass  of  Beth-horon 
to  the  valley  of  Ajalon  that  the  Canaanites  were  driven  in  dis- 
astrous panic  on  the  memorable  day  that  was  commemorated 
in  the  Book  of  Jasher.  Many  of  the  twenty-six  cities  in  this 
inheritance  are  familiar  to  us  all,  and  have  already  been 
noticed  ;  such  as  Jericho,  Bethel,  *'  Jebus  which  is  Jerusalem," 
Gibeon,  Ai.  Others  are  of  less  certain  identification.  Beth- 
arabah,  as  its  name  implies,  lay  in  the  Jordan  valley,  and  was 
somewhere  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  Jericho.  Ophrah  is 
not  the  town  of  Gideon  (Judg.  vi.),  but  is  probably  the  same 
place  as  Ephron,  or  Ephraim,'  and  is  identified  with  Tayibeh, 
a  village  on  a  high  tell  four  miles  north-east  of  Bethel.  Gaba 
("  height "),  or  Geba,  is  not  the  Geba  or  Gibfeah  of  Saul,  which 
is  to  be  found  in  the  lofty  and  isolated  Tuleil-el-Ful,  about  five 
miles  north  of  Jerusalem,  but  is  probably  the  modern  Jeba, 
which  is  situated  on  an  eminence  of  a  broad  ridge  opposite  and 
above  Michmash  (iMukhmas),  two  miles  east  of  Ramah  (er- 
Ram).  This  Ramah,  which  must  not  be  confounded  with 
Samuel's  home,  Ramathaim-Zophim,  stood  on  an  isolated  hill 
commanding  the  road  to  the  pass  of  Michmash,  the  key  of 
Central  Palestine.  "  It  was  here,"  says  Dr.  Geikie,=  "  at  the 
frontier  town  of  Benjamin,  that  the  Chaldseans  collected  their 
prisoners  before  marching  them  off  through  the  pass  of  Mich- 
mash to  Babylon— a  circumstance  used  by  Jeremiah  with  the 
finest  effect,  when  he  supposes  the  spirit  of  Rachel,  the  mother 
of  the  tribe,  to  have  left  her  tomb  by  the  wayside,  near  Bethel,^ 

*  2Chron.  xii.  19  ;  John  xi.  54.     See  also  i  Sam.  xiii.  17. 

'  "  Holy  Land  and  the  Bible,"  ii.  171. 

3  So  in  the  text,  but  ought  not  this  to  be  Bethlehem  ?    Gen.  xxxv.  16,  19. 


ALLOTMENTS   OF  THE  REMAINING  TRIBES.  163 

to  grieve  in  mid-air  over  the  unreturning  throng  "  (Jer.  xxxi.  15). 
Beeroth,  one  of  the  cities  in  aUiance  with  Gibeon,  is  the  modern 
el-Bireh  ;  it  was  the  residence  of  the  murderers  of  Ishbosheih. 
Mizpeh  is  probably  the  conspicuous  hill,  Neby  Samwil; 
Chephirah  (Kefireh)  is  another  of  the  cities  of  the  Gibeonite 
league  ;  Irpeel  is  supposed  to  be  Rafat,  a  village  one  mile  and  a 
half  north  of  Gibeon  ;  and  Zelah,  the  burial-place  of  Saul  and 
Jonathan,  is  recognized  in  Beit  Jala,  which  lies  south  of  the 
plain  of  Rephaim.  In  the  catalogue  of  conquered  cities  in  the 
inscriptions  at  Karnak  occurs  Tsalla,  which  may  well  represent 
Tzela. 

The  fortunes  of  Benjamin  are  closely  connected  with  its 
geographical  position.  In  spite  of  the  small  extent  of  the 
territory  and  its  mountainous  character  there  were  numerous 
spots  of  great  fertility,  and  it  was  quite  able  to  support  its  in- 
habitants without  being  indebted  to  external  assistance.  This 
self-sufficiency  and  the  natural  strength  of  their  district  fostered 
a  spirit  of  independence  which  was  often  put  to  the  test. 
Secured  by  the  possession  of  its  passes  and  heights,  and  relying 
on  the  courage  and  dexterity  of  its  warriors,  the  tribe  of  Benja- 
min for  a  certain  time  successfully  resisted  the  whole  power  of 
Israel  arrayed  against  them.^  Ehud,  the  judge  who  delivered 
the  land  from  the  oppression  of  the  Moabites,  was  a  man  of 
this  tribe  ;  so  was  Saul  the  first  king  ;  the  great  holy  places, 
Bethel,  Mizpeh,  Kirjath-jearim,  were  in  Benjamin  ;  hence  the 
nation  learned  to  associate  this  tribe  with  notions  of  power  and 
sanctity.  The  connection  with  Ephraim  was  only  gradually 
weakened ;  but  the  mutual  possession  of  Jerusalem  and  the 
common  property  in  the  temple,  from  the  time  of  David  and 
Solomon,  cemented  the  alliance  with  Judah,  and  henceforward 
the  history  of  Benjamin  is  merged  in  that  of  its  powerful  and 
dominant  sister  tribe. 

In  the  orderly  march  in  the  wilderness  the  south  side  was^ 
taken  by  Reuben,  Simeon,  and  Gad,  and  now  the  sacred  lot 
appropriately  fixed  the  position  of  Simeon  in  an  analogous 
direction.  This  tribe  had  greatly  declined  from  its  early  pre- 
eminence, for  whereas  in  the  first  census  its  warriors  numbered 
59,300,  in  the  second  battle-roll  at  the  end  of  the  forty  years' 
wandering,  they  amounted  only  to  22,200.  The  judgment  on 
Simeon  and  Levi  for  their  cruelty  and  treachery  in  ».he 
*  Judg.  XX. ;  xxi. 


1 64  JOSHUA. 

slaughter  of  the  Shechemites,  and  on  other  occasions  not 
recorded,  was  the  same  ;  but  while  it  turned  into  a  blessing  in 
the  case  of  the  latter,  it  was  fulfilled  by  the  entire  effacement  of 
the  former.    Jacob  had  said  : 

"  Cursed  be  their  anger,  for  it  was  fierce, 
And  their  wrath,  for  it  was  cruel ; 
I  will  divide  them  in  Jacob, 
And  scatter  them  in  Israel." 

And  when  Moses  gives  his  prophetical  blessing  to  the  tribes, 
he  entirely  omits  Simeon  from  his  view,  either  because  this 
tribe  had  been  chiefly  implicated  in  the  idolatrous  and  licen- 
tious proceedings  at  Shittim,  and  had  suffered  fatally  in  the 
mortality  with  which  those  crimes  were  punished  (Numb,  xxv.), 
or  (if  the  blessing  in  its  present  form  be  considered  a  later  pro- 
duction) because  it  had  wholly  disappeared  as  a  separate  clan. 
Now,  in  the  assignment  of  an  inheritance,  Simeon  received  not 
so  much  a  definite  portion  of  the  country  as  rather  certain  cities 
with  their  surrounding  lands,  and  these  within  the  limits 
originally  allotted  to  Judah  ;  and  thus  the  chronicler  does  not 
attempt  to  specify  the  boundaries,  as  in  the  case  of  the  other 
territories,  but  merely  enumerates  the  cities  which  were  made 
over  to  the  tribe.  Judah  doubtless  had  by  this  time  discovered 
that  its  portion  was  larger  than  it  required,  and  that  it  could  not 
colonize  and  hold  the  whole  region  which  had  been  assigned. 
When,  therefore,  the  lot  defined  Simeon's  position  in  the  south, 
Judah  gladly  made  over  some  of  its  towns  to  this  fierce  tribe, 
which  would  thus  guard  the  southern  frontier  of  the  country, 
and  be  a  barrier  against  the  incursions  of  the  wild  desert  hordes, 
then,  as  now,  a  constant  danger.  The  cities  assigned  to  Simeon 
were  thirteen  or  fourteen  in  number,  situated  chiefly  in  the 
Negeb,  many  of  them  being  occupied  conjointly  with  Judah, 
and  hence  ascribed  sometimes  to  one  tribe,  sometimes  to  the 
other.  It  seems  that  Israel's  possessions  extended  much 
further  to  the  south  towards  the  Sinaitic  Peninsula  than  is 
usually  supposed,  and  that  far  from  being  a  barren,  parched 
upland,  without  life  or  vegetation,  the  region  was  filled  with 
cities  whose  inhabitants  found  labour  rewarded  with  all  that 
was  necessary  for  support  and  comfort.  In  the  Simeonite 
territory  lay  Beersheba,  and  the  town  of  Sheba,  which  was 
spread  over  the  low  hills  bordering  the  wady  on  its  northern 


ALLOTMENTS  OF  THE  REMAINING  TRIBES.  165 

edge ;  and  twelve  miles  to  the  east  Moladah  (el-Milh),  with  its 
two  fine  wells,  at  the  foot  of  the  hill  on  which  the  town  was 
built.'  Hormah  was  jointly  conquered  by  the  two  tribes,  and 
its  name  changed  from  Zephath,  the  new  appellation  {=t/ie 
devoted)  denoting  the  utter  destruction  which  it  experienced 
when  first  seized.  Ziklag,  David's  temporary  home,  one  of 
the  Simeonite  cities,  is  placed  by  some  at  Zuheilika,  on  one  of 
three  low  hills  on  the  upper  side  of  the  Wady  es  Sheria,  eleven 
miles  east-south-east  from  Gaza,  and  nineteen  south-west  from 
Beit  Jibrin;'  others  find  it  at  Ashij,  some  way  south-west 
of  Moladah.  Two  other  places,  Beth-marcaboth,  "  House 
of  Chariots,"  and  Hazar-susah,  "Village  of  Horses,"  are 
noteworthy  as  indicating,  according  to  Stanley,  depots  and 
stations  for  horses  and  chariots,  such  as  went  to  and 
from  Egypt  in  Solomon's  time.  These  towns  are  named, 
in  chap.  xv.  31,  Madmannah  and  Sansannah,  the  former 
of  which  is  recognized  in  el-Minyay,  a  village  on  the  old 
pilgrim  road,  a  few  miles  south  of  Gaza.  The  other  towns 
which,  with  the  appendant  villages  and  the  surrounding 
country,  were  assigned  to  Simeon,  are  of  little  importance 
and  of  doubtful  identification.  One  is  called  Ramath  of 
the  South,  and  is  probably  the  same  place  as  Baalath-Beer 
("  Lady  of  the  Well "),  a  title  which  has  a  curious  mediaeval 
sound,  and  is  thought  to  be  the  modem  Kurnub,  a  ruin  on  a 
range  of  low  hills  some  twenty  miles  south-east  of  Beersheba. 
On  the  others  we  need  not  linger.  Nor  is  there  much  to  be  said 
concerning  the  fortunes  of  Simeon.  The  tribe  struggled  for  a 
time  to  preserve  its  individuahty,  and  even  after  David's  days 
asserted  its  independence,  and  made  conquests  in  the  south  ;  ^ 
but  it  exerted  no  influence  in  the  history  of  the  nation,  relapsed 
more  and  more  into  barbarism,  and,  overborne  by  the  ever- 
increasing  power  of  Judah,  retreated  further  and  further  into 
the  wilderness,  and  in  the  end  resumed  nomadic  habits.  A 
portion  of  the  clan  seems  to  have  migrated  to  Petra,  or  the 
mountains  of  Edom,  and  travellers  note  that  to  this  day  there 
are  so-called  "sons  of  Israel"  in  these  hills  who  hold  them- 
selves aloof  from  the  Arabs  of  the  desert,  and  are  plainly  a 

'  Geikie,  i.  265. 

*  So  Conder  and  Kitchener,  and  Geikie  in  hia  text  (i.  352),  but  in  his  map 
he  places  it  some  twelve  miles  south  of  Beersheb^. 
3  I  Chron.  iv.  38  ff. 


1 66  JOSHUA. 

distinct  race,  which  may  be  the  lineal  descendants  of  these 
emigrant  Simeonites/ 

We  come  now  to  the  settlement  of  the  four  tribes  in  the 
northern  part  of  the  country.  The  first  of  these  to  obtain  an 
inheritance  was  Zebulun,  which  had  been  associated  with 
Judah  and  Issachar  in  the  wilderness.  Josephus*  makes  their 
possession  extend  from  the  Lake  of  Gennesareth  to  Carmel 
and  the  sea.  This  is  in  due  accordance  with  the  prediction 
of  Jacob : 

"  Zebulun  shall  dwell  at  the  haven  of  the  sea  ; 
And  he  shall  be  for  an  haven  of  ships  ; 
And  his  border  shall  be  upon  Zidon." 

To  the  same  effect  is  the  blessing  of  Moses,  who  bids  Zebulun 
rejoice  in  its  commercial  enterprise,  "  its  going  out,"  and  says 
that  it  and  Issachar 

"Shall  suck  the  abundance  of  the  seas. 
And  the  hidden  treasures  of  the  sand  ; " 

the  final  clause  possibly  referring  to  the  manufacture  of  glass 
which  was  carried  on  in  very  early  times  along  the  Phoenician 
coast  Though  this  tribe  was  numerous,  surpassed  only  by 
Simeon,  Dan,  and  Judah  at  the  first  census,  when  it  amounted 
to  57,000,  and  at  the  last  reaching  60,500,  the  territory  allotted 
to  it  was  one  of  the  smallest,  being  about  equal  to  that  of 
Ephraim.  The  southern  border  started  from  a  central  point 
named  Sarid,  which  Conder  supposes  to  be  Tell  Shadud,  an 
extensive  ruin  on  the  northern  side  of  the  plain  of  Esdraelon, 
four  miles  and  a  half  south-west  of  Nazareth.  Westward 
from  Sarid  the  border,  touching  the  torrent  Kishon,  reached 
Jokneam,  which  is  identified  with  Tell  Kaimon,  a  large  mound 
at  the  foot  of  the  eastern  end  of  Mount  Carmel  ;  whether  it 
actually  extended  to  the  sea  is  doubtful  ;  if  it  did,  it  must  have 
passed  the  base  of  Carmel  on  the  northern  side.  The  proba- 
bility is  that  Asher  interposed  between  Zebulun  and  the 
Mediterranean.  Eastward  from  Sarid  the  first  point  named  is 
Chisloth-Tabor,  "the  flanks  of  Tabor,"  the  classical  Chasalus, 
and  now  Iksal,  a  rocky  height  on  the  north-west  side  of  the 

*  Obad.  19  ;  and  Pusey's  "  Comment." 

*  "AnL"  vi.  I.  22, 


ALLOTME^(TS   OF  THE   REMAINING  TRIBES.  167 

base  of  Tabor;  thence  the  boundary  ascended  to  Japhia  (Yafa), 
two  miles  south  of  Nazareth  (a  town  never  named  in  the  Old 
Testament),  in  a  maze  of  lovely  glens  filled  with  hawthorn,  dwarf- 
oak,  and  wild  pear-trees.  The  next  place  reached  was  Gittah- 
hepher  or  Gath-hepher,  now  el-Meshhad,  four  miles  north- 
north-east  of  Nazareth,  on  the  road  to  Tiberias,  the  birthplace 
of  the  prophet  Jonah,  and,  as  old  tradition  tells,  the  site  of 
his  sepulchre  ;  a  little  further  on  it  took  in  Rimmon,  now 
Rummaneh,  situated  on  the  plain  el-Buttauf,  turning  northward 
along  the  Lake  of  Gennesaret  as  far  as  Hannathon,  which 
some  would  identify  with  Kanal-el-Jelil,  the  Cana  of  Galilee, 
the  scene  of  the  Saviour's  first  miracle,  while  others  see  it  in 
Deir  Hanna,  a  village  six  miles  north  of  Rimmon.  Hence  the 
northern  boundary  turned  westwards,  descending  by  the  valley 
of  Iphtah-el,  the  Jotapata  of  Josephus,*  the  name  of  v/hich 
survives  in  the  modern  Jephat,  a  village  about  six  miles  down 
the  valley  here  called  Wady  Abellin,  It  is  impossible  to  follow 
the  border  further  till  it  joined  Asher  somewhere  parallel  to 
Accho,  as  we  do  not  know  the  places  by  which  its  course  is 
traced.  Something,  too,  has  evidently  fallen  out  of  the  text,  as 
Zebulun  is  said  (xix.  15)  to  have  possessed  twelve  cities  with  their 
dependent  villages,  while  only  five  are  named.  Among  these 
is  one  that  bears  the  time-honoured  name  of  Bethlehem, 
**  House  of  Bread,"  as  natural  an  appellation  for  a  place  in  this 
fertile  district  as  it  was  for  its  celebrated  namesake  in  Judah, 
The  town  is  now  represented  by  the  squalid  village  of  Beit 
Lahm,  situated  seven  miles  west  of  Nazareth. 

Fair  and  fruitful  as  was  the  inheritance  of  Zebulun,  with  the 
rich  valleys  of  the  mountains,  the  plain  and  fisheries  of  Gen- 
nesareth,  and  the  treasures  of  the  sea  at  Accho,  the  tribe  seems 
to  have  been  of  small  importance,  and  to  have  held  a  very 
subordinate  position  in  the  commonwealth.  We  hear  in- 
cidentally of  the  varied  productions  of  these  northern  terri- 
tories, and  of  the  warriors  whom  they  were  able  to  supply,  in 
the  account  of  w^hat  befell  David  at  Hebron  (i  Chron.  xii.). 
Thus  there  came  to  him  of  Zebulun,  "  such  as  were  able  to  go 
out  in  the  host,  that  could  set  the  battle  in  array,  with  all 
manner  of  instruments  of  war,  50,000,  .  .  .  and  were  not  of 
double  heart."  And  at  the  same  time  Issachar,  Zebulun,  and 
Naphtali  "brought  bread  on  asses,  and  on  camels,  and  on  mules, 
»  "  Bell.  )ud."  iii.  6  f. 


1 68  JOSHUA, 

and  on  oxen,  victual  of  meal,  cakes  of  figs,  and  clusters  of 
raisins,  and  wine,  and  oil,  and  oxen,  and  sheep  in  abundance." 
Yet  with  all  this  material  prosperity  the  tribe  never  asserted 
itself ;  it  has  left  no  mark  in  the  page  of  history.  The  very 
abundance  of  its  resources  induced  sloth  in  the  course  of  time  ; 
and  like  the  other  northern  tribes  it  maintained  its  peculiar 
nationality  very  partially,  and  assimilated  its  manners  and 
partly  its  religion  to  the  Gentile  neighbours  whom  it  failed  to 
expel.  In  the  earlier  days  of  the  settlement  the  Zebulunites 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  struggle  against  Jabin,  so  that 
Deborah  could  say  of  them  and  Naphtali  that  they  "jeoparded 
their  lives  unto  the  death  upon  the  high  places  of  the  field.^ 
And  if  the  translation  in  Judges  v.  14  be  correct : 

•'  Out  of  Zebulun  they  that  handle  the  staff  of  the  scribe," 

we  must  suppose  that  commercial  enterprise  and  intercourse 
with  other  nations  had  led  them  to  study  arts  and  sciences,  and 
to  the  acquirement  of  some  literary  skill.  But  no  proof  of  such 
acquirements  has  reached  us,  and  the  glory  of  Zebulun  consists 
not  in  any  action  or  monument  or  written  production,  but  in  the 
fact  that  this  territory  contains  many  of  the  places  endeared  to 
us  by  their  connection  with  the  Hfe  and  words  of  our  Blessed 
Saviour. 

Immediately  south  of  Zebulun,  between  that  tribe  and 
Manasseh,  came  the  inheritance  of  Issachar,  which  was  the 
next  lot.  Josephus^  says  that  it  extended  in  length  from 
Carmel  to  the  Jordan,  and  in  breadth  to  Mount  Tabor.  Thus 
it  included  the  greater  part  of  the  plain  of  Jezreel  ("  God 
soweth  ")  or  Esdraelon,  which  contains  the  richest  soil  in  all  the 
country.  This  celebrated  plain  is  triangular  in  shape,  running 
from  the  Jordan  valley  in  a  north-westerly  direction  to  the  Bay 
of  Acre.  The  base  abuts  on  the  Arabah,  and  is  about  fifteen 
miles  in  length,  measured  from  Jenin  (Engannim)  on  the  south 
to  Tabor  on  the  north  ;  the  northern  side  is  formed  by  the 
mountains  of  Nazareth,  which  rise  precipitously  from  the  level ; 
the  southern  is  formed  by  the  hills  of  Samaria  and  the  long 
stretch  of  Carmel ;  the  apex  is  a  narrow  pass  through  which 
the  Kishon  makes  its  way  to  the  Bay  of  Acre.  From  the  base 
of  the  triangle  three  branches  descend  eastward  to  the  Jordan 

»  "  Ant."  V.  I.  22. 


ALLOTMENTS  OF  THE   REMAINING   TRIBES.  1 69 

valley,  separated  by  nearly  isolated  ranges  rising  out  of  the 
plain,  the  southern  being  Mount  Gilboa,  the  centre  the  Little 
Hermon,  called  Moreh  in  Judges  vii.  i,  and  now  Jebel  Duhy, 
and  the  northern  the  rounded  mamelon  of  Tabor.  The  middle 
branch  of  these  three,  which  falls  rapidly  to  the  Jordan,  is 
known  by  the  name  of  the  Vale  of  Jezreel,  and  has  the  towns 
Jezreel  and  Shunem  on  either  side  at  the  western  extremity,  and 
Bethshan  at  the  eastern.  "Esdraelon,"  says  Dr.  Thomson,^  "is 
by  no  means  the  level  plain  it  appears  to  be,  as  seen  from 
Tabor  or  the  top  of  Jebel  ed  Duhy.  The  western  part  has  a 
decided  dip  towards  the  Mediterranean,  while  portions  of  it  at 
different  places  roll  up  in  long,  undulating  swells,  like  great 
waves  of  the  sea.  The  soil  is  surpassingly  fertile.  Checkered 
patches  of  wheat,  barley,  maize  or  Indian  corn,  millet,  sesame, 
and  even  cotton,  with  broad,  dark-brown  strips  of  fallow  land 
intervening,  cover  the  surface  ;  and  along  the  hill-sides  here 
and  there  are  groves  of  fig  and  olive-trees  descending  into  the 
plain.  The  few  palms  at  Jenin,  the  fruit-trees,  and  the  prickly- 
pear  hedges  surrounding  most  of  the  villages  on  the  heights, 
add  variety  to  the  scene."  The  plain  may  be  reckoned  as 
some  twenty  miles  in  length,  and  fourteen  in  its  broadest 
part.  Such  a  level  expanse,  free  from  forest  and  rock,  is  rare 
in  Palestine,  and  hence  has  always  formed  the  great  battle- 
field of  the  country,  and  the  pages  of  history  are  filled  with 
reminiscences  of  great  events  which  have  occurred  in  this 
locality.  Many  towns  named  in  Bible  story  are  found  in  the 
inheritance  of  Issachar.  Sixteen  cities  are  enumerated  as 
appertaining  thereto,  but  many  of  these  are  utterly  unknown. 
Some,  however,  are  happily  identified,  and  we  can  still  trace  the 
spots  where  important  battles  were  fought,  or  once  famous  cities 
stood.  Jezreel,  for  instemce,  from  which  the  valley  took  its 
name,  is  well  authenticated,  being  now  called  Zerin,  which  is 
simply  a  corruption  of  the  ancient  name.^  It  stands,  as  we 
have  said  above,  at  the  western  opening  of  the  central  offshoot 
of  the  great  plain.  The  knoll  on  which  it  is  placed  rises  to  the 
height  of  a  hundred  feet,  very  gradually  on  the  south,  but 
steeply  and  ruggedly  on  the  north  and  east.  The  view  from 
this  eminence  is  extensive,  ranging  from  the  Jordan  valley  on 
the  one  side  unto  Carmel  on  the  other,  and  comprehending  the 

^  "Central  Palestine,"  209. 

'  See  Robinson,  "  Bib.  Res."  iii.  163  ft". 


lyo  JOSHUA. 

whole  extent  of  the  plain.  Three  miles  north-east  of  Jezreel 
stands  Shunem,  now  Solam,  also  upon  an  eminence  of  some 
two  hundred  feet  in  height,  surrounded  with  an  unequalled 
wealth  of  corn-fields,  and  celebrated  as  the  central  position  of 
the  Philistines  before  the  fatal  battle  of  Gilboa,  and  as  the  scene 
of  the  story  of  the  Shunammite  woman,  and  her  son  whom  Elisha 
restored  to  life.  Still  further  south,  and  indeed  at  the  bottom 
of  the  plain,  is  situated  Jenin,  the  ancient  Engannim,  "Fountain 
of  Gardens,"  which  still  justifies  its  name  by  the  fertility  of  its 
inclosures  watered  by  a  beautiful  stream  which  runs  through 
the  town,  and  by  the  abundance  of  the  fruit-trees  which  enrich 
the  neighbourhood.  This  is  "  the  garden  house "  to  which 
Jehu  pursued  the  flying  Ahaziah.'  "  East  of  the  town  rises  the 
stony  range  of  Gilboa,  encircling  a  considerable  plain  ;  to  the 
north  stretches  out,  as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach,  the  brown 
rolling  plain  of  Esdraelon,  brightened  with  spots  of  green  ;  and 
three  miles  beyond  it  are  the  hills  from  which  the  white  houses 
of  Nazareth  look  down.  Nearer  at  hand  is  the  cone  of  the 
extinct  volcano  of  Jebel  Duhy,  while  to  the  west  the  view  is 
closed  by  the  broad  shoulder  of  Carmel."  The  other  towns 
noted  as  existing  in  Joshua's  time  have  not  been  identified  with 
any  certainty.  One  of  them,  Beth-shemesh  ("  House  of  the 
Sun  "),  has  the  same  name  as  the  more  famous  city  in  Judah 
and  another  in  Naphtali,  and  witnesses  to  the  wide  prevalence 
of  sun-worship  among  the  previous  inhabitants  of  the  land. 
Many  cities  within  the  limits  of  Issachar,  such  as  Bethshan, 
Megiddo,  Taanach,  Endor,  came  into  the  possession  of 
Manasseh,  and  have  been  already  mentioned.  The  old  patri- 
archal blessing  rightly  intimated  the  position  and  habits  of 
Issachar. 

"  Issachar  is  a  strong  male  ass 
Couching  down  between  the  sheepfolds  ; 
And  he  saw  a  resting-place  that  it  was  good, 
And  the  land  that  it  was  pleasant  ; 
And  he  bowed  his  shoulder  to  bear, 
And  became  a  servant  under  taskwork." 

It  was  an  indolent  agricultural  people,  with  no  high  aspi- 
rations, content  to  endure  oppression,  and  pay  black-mail  to 
the  various    marauding  tribes   which   were   attracted   by   the 

*  2  Kings  ix.  27  ;  Geikie,  "  The  Holy  Land  and  Bible,"  ii.  246. 


ALLOTMENTS   OF  THE   REMAINING  TRIBES.  I71 

richness  of  the  land.  The  sentence  of  Moses  would  imply  that 
Issachar  lived  a  semi-nomadic  life;  for  he  bids  him  -'rejoice 
in  his  tents."  Yet  the  tribe  was  powerful.  The  adult  males  at 
Sinai  amounted  to  54,400  ;  on  the  plains  of  Shittim  they  had 
increased  to  64,300,  being  exceeded  only  by  Judah  and  Dan. 
Their  numerical  superiority,  however,  did  not  lead  to  any  corre- 
sponding eminence  in  war  or  poHtics.  Though  the  great  struggle 
with  Sisera  (Judg.  v.)  took  place  in  their  territory,  "by  Taanach 
at  the  waters  of  Megiddo,"  we  should  not  gather  from  Deborah's 
song  that  they  played  any  prominent  part  in  the  action. 
Probably  the  appropriation  by  Manasseh  of  certains  towns 
assigned  to  Issachar  indicates  that  the  latter  left  to  their 
brother  tribe  the  task  of  wresting  them  from  the  Canaanites. 
They  showed  political  sagacity  in  assisting  to  make  David  king 
over  all  Israel,  and  it  was  this  wisdom  which  led  the  Chronicler 
to  speak  of  them  as  "  men  that  had  understanding  of  the  times, 
to  know  what  Israel  ought  to  do." '  Further  evidence  of  this 
prudence  is  wanting  ;  and  the  tribe,  though  prosperous  in 
numbers,  continued  in  inglorious  obscurity  till  carried  away 
captive  with  the  rest  of  the  people. 

The  tribe  of  Asher,  whose  lot  was  next  assigned,  obtained 
a  rich  strip  of  maritime  and  mountain  territory  to  the  west  and 
north  of  Zebulun.  In  the  march  its  post  had  been  between 
Dan  and  Naphtali  on  the  north  of  the  ark,  and  it  was  now 
associated  with  the  latter  in  its  possession,  part  of  which  lay 
between  Naphtali  and  the  sea.  As  originally  assigned  the 
inheritance  of  Asher  reached  from  Zidon  on  the  north  to  Shihor- 
libnath,  the  Black-white,  or  Muddy-white  river,  a  name  derived 
from  the  appearance  caused  by  the  chalk  brought  down  from 
the  neighbouring  limestone  hills.  The  river  thus  designated 
is  the  Nahr  Zerka,  or  Crocodile  Brook,  which  rises  in  the 
Carmel  range,  drains  the  marshy  ground  at  the  foot  of  the  hills, 
and,  fed  by  the  copious  fountains  called  Mamas,  after  a  tortuous 
course,  falls  into  the  sea  between  Csesarea  and  Dor.  Recent 
travellers  have  not  found  that  it  justifies  its  name  of  Crocodile 
River,  as  that  animal  certainly  does  not  now  infest  the  district ; 
but  one  was  killed  there  a  few  years  ago,  and  Mr.  Macgregor 
in  his  famous  canoe  voyage  met  with  one  in  the  Kishon  only 
a  few  miles  from  this  locality.^'     The  territory  extended  along 

*  1  Chron.  xii.  32. 

2  "  Rob  Roy  on  the  Jordan,"  387  ;  Geikie,  i.  66  f. 


172  JOSHUA. 

the  coast  from  this  point  northwards  to  Zidon  ;  not  that  Asher 
ever  obtained  possession  of  this  Phoenician  region,  or  even  of 
much  of  the  southern  portion  which  contained  cities  apper- 
taining to  other  tribes,  but  such  was  the  inheritance  allotted, 
which  it  might  have  colonized  had  it  pursued  its  claims  with 
energy  and  perseverance.  How  far  inland  the  territory  ex- 
tended it  is  impossible  to  settle,  as  the  identity  of  most  of  the 
towns  named  has  not  been  accurately  determined.  Tyre  and 
Acre,  which  lay  within  the  boundaries,  were  never  conquered, 
probably  not  even  assaulted.  From  a  point  near  Acre  as  a 
centre,  the  boundary  line  is  described  by  an  enumeration  of 
cities,  nominally  twenty-two  in  number,  north  and  south. 
First  it  touched  Helkuth,  the  modern  Yerka,  a  Druse  village, 
eight  miles  north-east  of  Acre,  on  the  slope  of  the  mountain 
above  a  wady  of  the  same  name  ;  then  it  included  Achsaph, 
whose  king  had  been  one  of  the  first  to  join  in  Jabin's  con- 
federacy, and  had  doubtless  suffered  the  fate  of  his  contem- 
poraries ;  keeping  to  the  south  it  embraced  Misheal  (Misalli) 
at  the  northern  extremity  of  the  Plain  of  Sharon,  and  continued 
past  Carmel  to  the  Crocodile  River.  This  eastern  border  was 
continuous  with  that  of  Zebulun  up  to  the  ravine  of  Jiphthahel 
at  its  northern  extremity,  though  the  places  that  mark  it  are 
not  yet  identified.  One  of  these,  Beth-dagon,  synonymous  with 
a  town  in  the  Shephelah,  points  to  the  wide  prevalence  of  the 
worship  of  the  fish-god.  Another  monument  of  heathen  idolatry 
is  found  in  one  of  Asher's  towns,  Hammon,  now  Umm  el 
Amud,  seven  miles  north  of  Achzib,  which  is  the  modern  es 
Zib,  the  classical  Eidippa,  on  the  sea-coast  some  six  miles 
above  Acre.  Hammon  is  probably  the  most  southern  of  purely 
Phoenician  towns,  and  in  it  has  been  found  "a  Phoenician 
votive  tablet  to  Moloch  Astarte,  and  a  long  text  in  eight  lines 
invoking  a  blessing  from  Baal,  Lord  of  heaven.  In  Greek 
times  this  site  was  known  as  Laodicea,  and  the  old  temple 
seems  to  have  been  consecrated  to  Hammon.  Possibly  this 
may  be  the  town  of  Asher,  called  Hammon  in  Joshua  xix.  28. 
The  ruins  here  visible  stand  on  a  hill  above  the  shore,  and  are 
half  hidden  by  the  copse.  .  .  .  The  most  interesting  remains 
on  the  site  are  those  of  two  altars,  which  almost  exactly 
resemble  the  so-called  *  libation  tables '  of  the  Egyptians  pre- 
served in  the  Bulak  Museum.  One  of  these  had  an  eagle 
carved  on  the  side,  the  other  was  plain.     The  first  was  a  block 


ALLOTMENTS  OF  THE  REMAINING  TRIBES.  173 

of  limestone  three  and  a  half  feet  high,  and  five  feet  by  three 
feet  at  the  top  ;  it  had  two  flat  basins,  a  foot  square  and  a  few 
inches  deep,  sunk  in  the  upper  surface.     The  second  was  three 
feet  high  and  two  feet  eight  inches  square,  with  a  single  basin 
of  the  same  size  as  in  the  former.     No  doubt  on  these  ancient 
altars,  now  tumbled  over  on  the  hili-side,  libations  to  Ashtoreth 
were  often  poured  before  Alexander  came  to  break  the  power  of 
Tyre."'     In   Cabul   we    probably  have   the  modern    Kabul,  a 
village  eight  miles  north-east  of  Acre,  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  which  was  the  district  containing  the  twenty  cities  presented 
by  Solomon   to   Hiram,  king  of  Tyre.^     The  boundary  going 
northward  passed  Kanah,  Ain-Kana^  eight  miles  south-east  of 
Zidon,  and  reached  the  most  northern  place  mentioned,  Aphek, 
which  has  been  already  described  as  situated  on  the  Adonis. 
It  is  noteworthy,  and  indicative  of  the  antiquity  of  the  Book 
of  Joshua,  that  while  Zidon  is  termed  ''  great  Zidon,"  and  is 
evidently  the  most  important  city  of  the  region,  Tyre  is  of  less 
consideration,  and,  being  called  "  the  fortified  city,"  which  is 
equivalent  to  "  the  land  fortress,"  had  evidently  at  this  time  not 
extended  to  the  islands  afterwards  so  celebrated.   These  islands, 
two  in  number,  and  connected  by  a  mound,  were  by  Alexander 
the  Great  united  to  the  mainland.   That  conqueror,  being  unable 
otherwise  to  overthrow  the  island  fortress,  raised  a  huge  mole 
or  causeway  in  the  strait,  which  by  the  accumulation  of  sand 
is  now  a  broad  isthmus  half  a  mile  across.     To  our  modern 
ideas,   and   in  view  of  our  ocean-going   ships,  Tyre  and   its 
harbours  are  of  very  moderate  dimensions.     The  area  of  the 
islands  is  only  200  acres,  and  that  of  the  largest  of  the  two 
harbours  about  twelve,  while  the  whole  length  of  the  site  from 
iiorth  to  south  does  not  amount  to  1,200  yards,  and  from  east 
to  west  is  barely  800.     "  The  docks  of  London  cover  twice  as 
-much  space  as  the  whole  of  the  ancient  Phoenician  capital.  .  .  . 
Tarshish  ships  may  have  been  in  some  cases  large  and  splendid, 
but  these  must  have  been  comparatively  few  in  number,  for 
there  was   no  room  at  Tyre  or   Sidon  even  for  the  shipping 
of  towns  like  Dundee  or  Aberdeen,  while  a  single  dock  on  the 
Thames  would  hold  a  greater  number  of  vessels,  of  immensely 
greater  tonnage,  than  could  have  found  moorage  in  Tyre  and 
Sidon  together."  3     But  though  of  considerably  less  importance 
-*  Conder,  "  Heth  and  Moab/'  87  £.  '  i  Kings  ix.  11  flL 

3  Geikie^  iL  495  ff. 


174  JOSHUA. 

than  it  subsequently  became,  Tyre  was  unmolested  by  the 
Asherites,  who  were  disposed  rather  to  cultivate  friendly  rela- 
tions with  the  Phoenician  inhabitants  than  to  attempt  to  dis- 
possess them  by  forcible  operations.  They  may  possibly  have 
at  first  made  some  hostile  demonstrations  against  their  heathen 
neighbours,  but  they  were  so  thoroughly  checked  by  the  superior 
power  and  skill  of  their  opponents  that  they  soan  settled  down 
side  by  Side  with  them,  and  prosecuted  no  further  attempt  at 
conquest.  To  their  supineness  Deborah  contemptuously  refers 
when  she  says  (Judg.  v.  17)  : 

"  Asher  sat  still  at  the  haven  of  the  sea^ 
And  abode  by  his  creeks*" 

The  natural  advantages  of  the  territory  assigned  to  Asher  were 
great  ;  the  soil  was  rich  and  productive,  and  well  fulfilled  the 
promise  of  his  name,  which  means  "favourable,."  and  the 
patriarchal  blessing  : 

•*  Out  of  Asher  his  bread  shall  be  fat^ 
And  he  shall  yield  royal  dainties." 

The  rich  plain  of  Phoenicia  and  the  fertile  upland  valleys  gave 
bim  corn,  fruit,  milk,  and  bread  ta  the  full,  and  not  only  sup- 
plied his  own  necessities,  but  enabled  bim  ta  dispense  his 
superfluities  to  his  neighbours  by  sale  or  barter.^  The  blessing 
€*f  Moses  was  still  more  emphatic  i 

"Blessed  be  Asher  above  the  sons  [of  Jacob},. 
Let  him  be  the  favoured  one  of  his  brethren,. 
Let  him  dip  his  foot  ia  oiL 
Thy  shoes  shall  be  in  iron  and  brass. 
And  as  thy  days,  so  shall  thy  strength  be.*^ 

Asher  was  indeed  largely  favoured  by  climate  and  soil.  Olives,, 
which  he  planted  not,  were  abundant  thi-oughout  the  district,, 
so  that  he  could  dip  his  foot  in  the  oil  which  overflowed  from 
the  presses,  the  very  type  of  prosperity  promised  to  a  faithful 
people.^  Nor  were  mineral  treasures  wanting.  It  was  a  land 
whose  stones  were  iron,  and  out  of  whose  hills  copper  might 
be  dug,  as  Moses  had  promised.^  At  any  rate,  though  we  have 
no  proof  that  the  Israelites  em.ployed  any  mining  operations 

*Comp.  Ezek.  x.wii.  17;  Acts  xii.  20;  Josephus>  "Ant."  xiv,  10.  d. 
*  DeuL  xiviiL  40  ;  loel  ii.  24^  ?-  DeuL  viii.  9, 


ALLOTMENTS  OF  THE  REMAINING  TRIBES.  1 75 

at  this  time,  it  is  certain  that  iron  ore  was  obtained  from  the 
slopes  of  Lebanon  at  a  very  early  period,  and  copper  in  parts 
of  the  Plicenician  territory.  The  Asherites  were  by  no  means 
a  small  tribe.  At  Sinai  they  had  exceeded  in  numbers  Epbraim, 
Manasseh,  and  Benjamin,  amounting  to  41,500,  and  before 
entering  Canaan  had  increased  to  53,400,  which  raised  them 
to  the  fifth  place  in  point  of  population.  But  they  made  small 
use  of  their  advantages  ;  they  dwelt  on  sufferance  among  the 
Canaanites,  preferring  ignoble  ease  and  pastoral  or  commercial 
employments  to  the  dangers  of  the  soldier's  life  and  the  con- 
stant activity  of  a  war  of  conquest.*  No  judge  or  leader  ever 
rose  from  their  ranks,  and  through  all  the  ages  there  is  no  per- 
sonage that  comes  forth  from  the  obscurity  in  which  they  are 
involved  save  Anna,  the  daughter  of  Phanuel,  the  aged  widow 
who  welcomed  the  advent  of  the  Saviour  when  He  was  pre- 
sented in  the  temple.^ 

The  sixth  lot  was  that  of  Naphtali,  whose  territory  lay 
between  Asher  and  the  Upper  Jordan,  was  bounded  on  the 
south  by  Zebulun,  and  on  the  north  extended  far  into  Coele- 
Syria,  forming  the  frontier  of  the  country. 

Jacob  spoke  of  Naphtali  as  "  a  slender  terebinth,  which 
spreadeth  forth  goodly  boughs,"  ^  faithfully  adumbrating  the 
tribe  with  its  strip  of  territory  running  far  north  along  the 
Jordan  stream,  and  implying  that  it  would  produce  brave 
leaders  of  the  people.'*  Inclosed  as  this  inheritance  was  on 
south  and  west  by  other  tribes,  and  "bounded  on  the  east  by 
the  lakes  of  Gennesareth  and  ISIerom  and  the  Jordan,  its  limits 
are  easily  defined,  especially  if,  as  is  most  probable,  the  ravine 
of  the  Litany,  v/here  it  turns  to  the  west  below  Belfort,  formed 
its  northern  boundary.  The  area  thus  inclosed  was  much 
larger  than  that  of  Issachar,  amounting  to  800  square  miles, 
which  is  about  the  size  of  Leicestershire.  According  to 
Josephus  5  the  north-eastern  side  extended  to  Damascus,  but 
there  is  no  evidence  of  this  now  extant.  Of  the  towns  which 
are  mentioned  as  defining  the  boundaries,  some  are  identified 
with  tolerable  certainty.     The  south-eastern   point   is  Adami 

»  Jndg.  i.  32.  *  Luke  >i.  36  ff. 

3  This  rendering,  which  is  obtained  by  some  alteration  of  the  vowel 
points,  seems  to  be  more  correct  than  the  A.  V. :  "  Naphtali  is  a  hind  let 
loose  ;  he  giveth  goodly  words."    See  Dillmann  oa  Gen.  xlix.  21. 

*  Ewald,  "  Hist.  Isr."  ii.  291.  5  "  Ant."  v.  i.  22. 


1 76  JOSHUA. 

(Damieh),  a  little  south  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee  ;  another  point 
is  the  oak  forest  of  Zaanannim,  above  the  Lake  Merom, 
a  place  about  to  become  famous  by  the  murder  of  Sisera  at  the 
hands  of  Jael  the  wife  of  Heber  the  Kenite  (Judg.  iv.).  The 
name  of  this  place  is  explained  to  mean  "the  unloading  of 
tents/'  and  is  referred  to  the  unusual  spectacle  (still,  however, 
to  be  seen  occasionally)  of  nomads  setting  up  their  tents  amid  the 
settled  villages  of  the  mountains.  There  is  here  a  fertile  little 
plain,  and  the  hills  are  still  thickly  clothed  with  oak  and  other 
trees,  though  the  thriftless  habits  of  the  inhabitants,  who  are  always 
cutting  down  and  never  plant,  will  ere  long  make  this  district 
as  bare  as  many  others  are.  The  furthermost  eastern  point 
is  called,  curiously  enough,  "  Judah  at  Jordan,"  of  which  two 
explanations  are  given.  Many  suppose  that  the  cities  called 
Havoth-Jair  in  Eastern  Manasseh  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
Jordan  are  meant.  Jair  was  a  descendant  of  Judah  on  the 
father's  side,  and  was  probably  assisted  by  his  kinsmen  of  that 
tribe  in  his  conquest  of  Bashan  ;  hence  the  towns  to  which  he 
gave  his  name,  especially  those  nearest  the  river,  were  called 
*'  Judah  of  the  Jordan."  The  other  suggestion  is  that  the  place 
referred  to  is  an  ancient  site,  two  and  a  half  miles  below  Banias, 
which  bears  the  name  of  Seiyid  Huda  Ibn  Yakub,  "  Lord  Judali, 
son  of  Jacob.'" 

To  guard  its  inheritance  Naphtali  possessed  a  large  number 
of  fenced  cities,  of  many  of  which  traces  and  monuments  still 
remain.  Nineteen  are  named — none  too  many  to  protect  the 
northern  frontier  of  the  whole  country,  as  the  fortresses  of 
Judah  secured  the  southern.  Hazor  has  been  already  men- 
tioned in  Joshua's  northern  campaign,  Ziddim  is  the  Talmudic 
Caphar  Hittai,  "the  village  of  the  Hittites,"  now  Hattin,  on 
the  plain  five  and  a  half  miles  north-west  of  Tiberias.  Tiberias 
itself  was  then  called  Rakhath  ("  shore  "),  of  which  the  name 
exactly  suits  the  site.  Speaking  of  this  town  and  the  first  view 
of  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  Tristram  says  :  ^  "  For  nearly  three 
hours  we  had  ridden  on,  with  Hermon  in  front,  sparkling 
through  its  light  cloud  mantle,  but  still  no  sight  of  the  Sea  of 
Galilee.  One  ridge  after  another  had  been  surmounted,  when 
on  a  sudden  the  calm,  blue  basin,  slumbering  in  placid  sweet- 

*  Thomson,  "  The  Land  and  the  Book."    Another  suggestion  is  that  the 
right  reading  is  Hurah,  i.e.,  the  Ghor  or  Valley  of  Jordan. 
=»  "Land  of  Israel,"  422  f. 


ALLOTMENTS   OF  THE   REMAINING  TRIBES.  1 77 

ness  beneath  its  surrounding  wall  of  hills,  burst  upon  us,  and 
we  were  looking  down  on  the  hallowed  scenes  of  our  Lord's 
ministry.     We  were  on  the  brow  of  a  very  steep  hill.     Below 
us  was  a  narrow  plain,  sloping  to  the  sea,  whose  beach  we 
could  trace  to  its  northern  extremity.     At  our  feet  lay  the  city 
of  Tiberias,  the  only  remaining  town  on  its  shores,  enclosed  by 
crumbling  fortifications  with  shattered  but  once  massive  round 
bastions."      Hammath  ("warm")  is  recognized  in  the   well- 
known  Hammaus  or  Emmaus,  a  place  celebrated  for  its  hot 
springs,  within  a  mile  of  Tiberias.     The  water,  which  is  very 
salt  and  bitter,  issues  in  four  springs  at  a  high  temperature,  and 
is  still  largely  used  by  the  natives,  who  bathe  in  it. for  the  relief 
of  all  kinds  of  ailments.     Here  we  have,  as  one  of  Naphtali's 
strongholds,  Chinnereth,  which  gave  its  name  to  the  lake,  the 
original  form  passing  through  Genezar  to  end  finally  in  Gen- 
nesaret.    The  site  of  this  city  is  wholly  unknown.   We  are  more 
certain  when  we  speak  of  Kedesh,  Kedesh-Naphtali, "  The  Holy 
Place  of  Naphtali,"  the  home  of  Barak,  whence  he  marched 
to  victory  over  the  hosts  of  Canaanites.     Known  sometimes  as 
Kishon  or  Kishion,  and  in  later  days  as  Cydoessa  or  Cydissus, 
it  is  now  called  Kedes,  the  ruins  of  the  place  lying  on  a  hill 
overlooking  a  rich  alluvial  plain  four  miles  north-west  of  Merom/ 
The  remains  of  the  old  Canaanite  fortress  have  long  crumbled 
into  dust  ;  Thothmes  HI.  of  Egypt  had  reckoned  it  among  his 
conquests  two  hundred  years  before  Joshua  overcame  its  king  ; 
but  of  those  early  events  no  trace  is  found,  and  the  traveller 
nowadays  gazes  with  wonder  on  monuments  of  Roman  splen- 
dour, temples,  tombs,  carved  stones,  which  proclaim  the  power 
and  wealth  of  the  imperial  people,  and  the  once  dense  popula- 
tion of  this  desolate  region.^      Another  of  Naphtali's  fenced 
cities  is  Migdal-el,  which  is  identified  with  the  modern  village 
el-Mejdel,  the  ancient  Magdala,  whence  the  Mary  of  the  Gospel 
obtained  her  appellation.     It  stands  close  to  the  Lake  of  Gen- 
nesaret,  at  the  south-east  corner  of  the  plain,  an  indescribably 
miserable  and  filthy  place,  which  could  never  have  possessed 
any  attractions,  save  as  a  convenient  fishing  station. 
Moses  had  blessed  Naphtali  in  these  terms  : 
"  O  Naphtali,  satisfied  with  favour, 

And  full  with  the  blessing  of  the  Lord  ; 

Possess  thou  the  sea  and  the  south." 

*  Josh.  xxi.  28  ;  Josephus.  "  Bell.  Jud."  iv.  2.  3. 
■  Geikie,  ii.  373  f.  ;  Robinson,  i'  Lat.  Res."  366  f. 
13 


178  JOSHUA. 

The  district  enjoyed  great  capabilities,  grand  scenery,  fertile 
land,  rich  forests.  The  mountainous  portion,  Mount  Naphtali, 
as  the  historian  calls  it,  has  retained  so  glowing  a  reputation, 
that  it  is  named  at  this  day  Belad-Besharah,  "land  of  good 
tidings,"  and  it  would  deserve  its  title  if  it  were  in  different 
hands  and  under  a  different  government.  The  plains  are 
commended  by  Josephus'  in  glowing  terms;  want  and  scarcity, 
he  says,  are  never  known  there  ;  the  soil  is  productive,  fit  for 
pasturage,  and  adapted  for  the  growth  of  all  kinds  of  trees  ; 
so  fertile,  indeed,  as  to  invite  cultivation  at  the  hands  of  the 
most  supine.  The  southern  portion  of  the  territory  has  been 
called  the  garden  of  Palestine  ;  and  the  fields  by  the  shore  of 
the  lake,  and  the  little  vales  which  run  thence  into  the 
mountains,  are  of  unrivalled  fecundity.^  Naphtali  by  its 
position  was  somewhat  isolated  from  the  southern  provinces ; 
but  when  an  enemy  invaded  Palestine  on  the  side  of  Coele 
Syria,  it  had  to  bear  the  first  brunt  of  the  attack.  Yet  we 
read  of  no  patriotic  struggles,  no  heroic  enterprises,  in  connec- 
tion with  the  tribe,  save  the  solitary  occasion  when  they  rallied 
round  Barak,  and  with  Zebuiun  "jeoparded  their  lives  unto 
the  death  upon  the  high  places  of  the  field."  This  one 
supreme  effort  seems  to  have  exhausted  their  nationalism  ; 
henceforward  they  were  mingled  among  the  heathen  and 
learned  their  works ;  and  in  course  of  time  their  country 
became  Galilee  of  the  Gentiles.  This  "  name  Galilee,  pro- 
nounced locally  Jalil,  has  been  understood  to  come  from  a 
Hebrew  word  meaning  'circuit,'  or  circle,  but  the  better 
derivation  appears  to  be  from  the  root  meaning  'to  roll'  The 
area  was  not  a  contracted  one,  but  must  have  been  exten- 
sive. .  .  .  Thus  ancient  Gahlee  must  have  had  one  of  its 
flanks  resting  on  the  land  of  the  Phoenicians,  and  the  other  on 
the  land  of  the  Syrians  of  Damascus.  It  comprised  Zebulun's 
inheritance,  and  part  of  Naphtah's,  all  in  the  hills.  It  also 
embraced  the  inheritance  of  Issachar  on  the  Esdraelon  Plain. 
The  Jewish  inhabitants,  exposed  to  Gentile  inroads,  were 
wilder  and  rougher  than  their  brethren  in  the  south."  3 

The  seventh  and  last  lot  fell  to  the  tribe  of  Dan.     In  the 
march  through    the   wilderness    Dan    had  held  a  position  on 

«  "  Bell.  Jud."  iii.  3.  2,  and  10.  8. 

»  Porter,  ap.  Kitto,  "Cyclop."  Art.  "Naphtali." 

3  Temple,  "  Palestine  Illustrated,"  231. 


ALLOTMENTS  OF  THE   REMAINING  TRIBES.  1 79 

the  north  in  company  of  Asher  and  his  own  brother  Naphtali, 
and  in  population  had  been  second  only  to  Judah,  numbering 
62,700  adult  males.  In  the  second  census  it  had  increased  to 
64,400,  and  yet  the  territory  assigned  to  it  was  the  smallest  of 
all.  By  its  topographical  enumeration  among  the  northern 
tribes  it  would  seem  that  an  intimation  was  given  of  the  future 
position  which  it  conquered  for  itself.  Its  original  settlement, 
however,  was  in  quite  a  different  direction,  to  the  west  of 
Ephraim  and  Benjamin  up  to  the  sea  coast.  Girt  by  those  two 
tribes  on  the  north  and  east,  and  by  Judah  on  the  south,  the 
boundaries  of  Dan  are  not  given  ;  only  its  cities  are  enume- 
rated. But  we  can  say  generally  that  the  inheritance  extended 
from  the  slopes  by  which  the  highlands  of  Benjamin  and  Judah 
descend  to  the  Shephelah,  unto  the  Mediterranean,  embracing 
the  coast  from  Joppa  on  the  north  to  Jabneel  and  Ekron  on 
the  south,  a  distance  of  fourteen  miles.  Thus  it  included  the 
lower  part  of  the  valley  of  Sorek  (Wady  Surar)  and  the  plain 
of  Sharon.  Its  area  was  about  four  hundred  square  miles, 
somewhat  less  than  that  of  Benjamin  ;  and  it  comprised  the 
richest  corn-lands  and  vineyards  of  the  south.  The  nineteen 
cities  in  the  district  have  for  the  most  part  been  identified  by 
the  Palestine  explorers  ;  but  many  of  them  are  of  no  im- 
portance, and  play  no  part  in  history.  Some,  however,  are 
worthy  of  mention  ;  and  of  these  not  a  few  have  been  already 
noticed  in  connection  with  other  tribes,  especially  Judah,  who 
seems  either  to  have  made  over  some  of  his  towns  to  Dan,  or 
to  have  inhabited  them  conjointly.  Thus  Zorah  and  Eshtaol 
are  on  the  confines  of  Judah,  and  reckoned  to  that  tribe ;  this 
is  the  case  also  with  Irshemesh,  or  Bethshemesh,  now  Ain 
Shems,  "  the  fountain  of  the  sun."  Ajalon,  so  celebrated  in 
the  song  that  told  of  Joshua's  great  feat,  was  now  one  of  Dan's 
cities,  and  is  represented  by  the  modern  village  of  Yalo,  which 
stands  on  the  side  of  the  hill  which  forms  the  southern 
boundary  of  the  broad  and  beautiful  Merj  Ibn  Omeir,  the 
ancient  valley  of  Ajalon.  The  name  signifies  "pla  :e  of  gazelles," 
and,  with  many  other  like  appellations,  gives  a  glimpse  of  the 
natural  history  of  the  country.  Thus  we  have  in  its  immediate 
neighbourhood  Shaalabbim,  "jackals,"  and  Zeboim,  "hyasnas." 
The  adventures  of  Samson  indicate  the  abundance  of  the 
former  of  these  animals.^  Of  Ekron  and  Joppa  we  need  not 
^  Judg.  XV.  4. 


l8o  JOSHUA. 

speak.  Gibbethon  is  probably  the  village  of  Kibbiah,  six  miles 
and  a  half  north-east  of  Lydda,  then  called  Lod,  but  not 
mentioned  among  Dan's  towns  ;  Jehud  is  el-Yehudijeh,  a  little 
to  the  east ;  and  Mejarkon,  the  most  northern  locality  named, 
is  a  town  on  the  river  Aujeh,  which  has  the  same  meaning, 
"the  yellow  river."  This  is  the  largest  stream  in  the  plain  of 
Sharon,  and  is  of  sufficient  volume  to  withstand  the  drought  of 
summer,  and  to  force  its  way  through  the  opposing  sandbanks 
in  a  permanent  channel  to  the  sea  five  miles  north  of  Joppa. 

The  territory  of  Dan,  as  we  have  seen,  was  very  small  ;  but 
though  the  energies  of  the  Danites  were  thus  concentrated  in 
a  narrow  sphere,  they  were  unable  to  dispossess  the  ancient 
inhabitants.  The  tract  along  the  coast  was  held  by  a  horde  of 
Amorites  which  maintained  its  position  in  spite  of  all  efforts  to 
dislodge  it.'  The  Philistines  also  were  unsubdued.  That  Dan 
did  not  yield  without  a  struggle,  but  long  maintained  the  contest 
with  the  courage  and  skill  for  which  it  was  famed,  may  be 
inferred  from  the  term  Mahaneh-Dan,  "camp  of  Dan,"  applied 
to  a  place  near  Kirjath-jearim,  showing  that  the  tribe  was  still 
on  the  war-path,  even  when  nominally  settled  in  their  in- 
heritance.^ Forced  by  their  heathen  opponents  from  the  rich 
plain  to  the  more  barren  hills,  and  confined  in  limits  too  narrow 
for  their  population,  the  Danites  determined  to  enlarge  their 
borders  in  some  other  direction.  Accordingly,  some  few  years 
after  the  allotment,  they  sent  forth  five  spies  from  two  of  their 
towns  with  instructions  to  seek  for  some  favourable  spot,  as  yet 
unoccupied  by  their  countrymen,  which  they  might  seize  and 
colonize.3  These  messengers  went  on  their  way  northwards, 
through  Ephraim  and  the  other  tribes,  till  they  had  tracked  the 
Jordan  to  its  source  ;  and  here  they  found  what  they  sought. 
At  the  edge  of  the  wide  plain  which  slopes  from  the  south-west 
angle  of  the  base  of  Mount  Hermon  rises  "an  artificial-looking 
mound  of  limestone  rock,  flat-topped,  eighty  feet  high,  and  half 
a  mile  in  diameter."'*  On  this  stood  a  town,  named  Leshem  or 
Laish,  inhabited  by  a  colony  from  Sidon,  separated  by  the  Lebanon 
and  its  ofTshootsfromthemothercity,dvvelhng"quiet  and  secure," 
inoffensive  in  their  own  habits,  and  without  fear  of  injury  from 

*  Judg.  i.  34  f.;  I  Sam.  vii.  14. 

'  Judg.  xiii.  25  ;   xviii.  12  ;   Ewald,  ii.  289. 

3  Josh.  xix.  47  ;  judg.  xviii. 

4  Tristram,  "  Land  of  Israel,"  580. 


ALLOTMENTS  OF  THE  REMAINING  TRIBES.  l8l 

any  powerful  neighbour.  It  was  a  lavishly  fertile  and  lovely 
spot ;  from  the  base  of  the  hill  one  of  the  sources  of  the  Jordan 
wells  forth,  and  by  its  perennial  waters  maintains  the  bright 
verdure  of  the  scene.  Well  might  the  spies  report  :  "  We  have 
seen  the  land,  and,  behold,  it  is  very  good,  .  .  .  and  the  land  is 
large,  ...  a  place  where  there  is  no  want  of  anything  that  is 
in  the  earth."  TravelHng  towards  Banias,  Mr.  Oliphant^ 
speaks  thus  of  the  locality  :  "  At  this  point  a  new  and  most 
enchanting  view  burst  upon  us.  At  our  feet  lay  the  plain  of  the 
Huleh  [Merom],  looking  far  more  fertile  and  productive  than  it 
really  is  ;  as  much  of  it  is  marsh  and  waste  land,  that  might, 
however,  easily  be  reclaimed.  But  surrounded  as  it  is  with  a 
girdle  of  noble  mountains,  with  the  blue  and  tranquil  waters 
of  Merom  gleaming  in  the  midst  of  a  setting  of  richest  green, 
and  the  Jordan  winding  away  in  the  distance,  as  seen  from  the 
hills  to  the  north,  it  is  without  doubt  one  of  the  most  attractive 
views  in  Palestine.  One  can  hardly  wonder  at  the  men  of  Dan, 
when  they  came  upon  it,  being  fascinated  by  the  luxuriance  of 
the  landscape  and  its  charm  of  position,  and  then  and  there 
deciding  to  oust  the  existing  peasantry,  and  occupy  as  much  of 
it  themselves  as  had  not  been  already  appropriated  by  the  tribe 
of  Naphtali." 

The  report  brought  by  the  messengers  was  considered  so 
satisfactory  that  an  expedition  was  immediately  organized,  and 
six  hundred  chosen  warriors,  marching  to  the  north,  surprised 
the  unguarded  Laish,  massacred  the  inhabitants,  burned  the 
city  in  a  reckless  spirit  of  destruction,  and  established  them- 
selves on  the  ruined  site,  calling  the  name  of  their  new  settle- 
ment Dan,  which  henceforward  became  the  most  northern 
landmark  of  Canaan,  as  Beersheba  was  considered  the 
southernmost.  Of  their  occupation  a  memorial  exists  to  this 
day  in  the  name  of  the  place,  which  is  called  Tell-el-Kadi,  "the 
mound  of  the  judge,"  Kadi,  like  Dan,  signifying  "judge." 
According  to  one  view  of  the  blessing  of  Moses,  Dan  was 
destined  to  guard  the  northern  frontier,  and  by  this  expedition 
executed  a  foreseen  movement.     His  words  are  : 

*'  Dan  is  a  lion's  whelp, 
That  leapeth  forth  from  Bashan." 

This  sentence  may  imply  that  the  tribe  was  to  watch  the  north, 

'   "  Land  of  Gilead,"  i8  f. 


1 82  JOSHUA. 

and  specially  the  slopes  of  Hermon  ;  or  it  may  be  a  mere 
general  statement  that  it  should  lurk  couching  for  prey,  like  a 
lion  in  the  coverts  of  Bashan.  The  sentence  of  Jacob  is  more 
definite.  First,  with  a  paronomasia  on  the  name,  he  foretells 
that  the  tribe  shall  make  as  good  a  leader  of  forces  and  as 
valiant  an  opponent  of  enemies  as  any  of  the  families  in  the 
land. 

•*  Dan  shall  judge  his  people, 
As  one  of  the  tribes  of  Israel." 

And  certainly  Samson,  the  champion  and  judge,  emphatically 
confirmed  this  announcement.     He  proceeds  : 

"  Dan  shall  be  a  serpent  in  the  way. 
An  adder  in  the  path, 
That  biteth  the  horse's  heels, 
So  that  his  rider  falleth  backward." 

His  position  was  to  be  at  the  outskirts  of  Israel,  where  he  was 
to  watch  stealthily  for  the  enemy,  and  fall  on  him  suddenly,  as 
the  chosen  band  surprised  Laish.  The  serpent  here  referred 
to  is  the  cerastes,  or  horned  snake  (so  called,  from  the  appear- 
ance of  two  protuberances  over  the  eyes),  a  creature  some  four- 
teen inches  long,  which  lurks  in  the  sand  and  darts  out  suddenly 
at  any  passing  beast,  inflicting  a  bite  which  is  most  poisonous 
and  deadly.  It  is  found  in  the  desert  south  of  Judaea  and  in 
Egypt.  Horses  have  a  remarkable  dread  of  this  reptile,  and 
where  they  detect  its  presence  cannot  be  induced  to  proceed. 
It  would  seem  from  this  comparison  that  Dan  was  to  effect  its 
purposes  rather  by  stratagem  than  by  open  assault.  The  con- 
cluding sentence  of  the  blessing  may  be  a  tribal  war  cry  in 
which  this  vigilant,  expectant  attitude  is  intimated  ; 

*'  I  have  waited  for  Thy  salvation,  O  Lord." 

The  subsequent  history  of  the  tribe  is  obscure.  Samson  is 
the  only  hero  that  arose  from  its  lineage.  The  emigrants,  on 
their  way  to  the  north,  had  carried  off  from  Mount  Ephraini 
the  images  and  the  priest  found  in  the  house  of  one  Micah,  and 
set  up  an  anomalous  worship  in  their  new  home.^     The  line  of 

'  Judg.  xviii.  The  name  "  Manasseh,"  inverse  30,  is  without  doubt  an, 
unauthorized  alteration  from  "  Moses,"  which  is  the  genuine  reading.  The 
change  was  introduced  to  avoid  the  scandal  of  the  foundation  of  an  idola- 
trous worship  being  traced  to  the  grandson  of  the  great  lawgiver. 


ALLOTMENTS  OF  THE  REMAINING  TRIBES.  1 83 

priests  there  established  was  of  the  tribe  of  Levi,  and  indeed 
of  the  family  of  Moses,  but  it  was  not  Aaronic,  and  was  there- 
fore schismatical.  The  distance  from  Shiloh,  and  their  isolated 
position,  led  the  Danites  into  schism  and  idolatry;  the  southern 
section  was  soon  amalgamated  with  Judah  and  Benjamin,  the 
northern  intermingled  with  their  Phoenician  neighbours  ;  and  the 
individuality  of  the  tribe  was  so  lost,  or  their  gross  idolatry  was 
so  flagrant,  that  their  genealogies  are  omitted  by  the  Chronicler, 
and  they  do  not  appear  in  the  Apocalypse  among  the  "  sealed  " 
Israelites/ 

When  all  the  tribes  had  received  their  inheritance,  the  modest 
wants  of  Joshua  were  provided  for.  His  own  interest  was  the 
very  last  thing  that  he  thought  of,  showing  himself  now  as  ever 
moderate  and  unselfish.  It  seems  (though  the  injunction  is  not 
found  in  the  Pentateuch)  that,  like  Caleb,  Joshua  had  been  dis- 
tinctly promised  a  special  portion  in  the  land  ;  ^  and  accordingly 
he  asked  for  a  city  in  his  own  tribe,  Timnath-Serah,  or,  as  it  is 
called  in  Judges  ii.  9,  Timnath-heres,  "  Portion  of  the  sun,"  the 
latter  part  of  the  word  being  either  a  mere  transposition  of 
the  original  Serah,  or,  according  to  Jewish  tradition,  a  reference 
to  the  miracle  at  Beth-horon.3  Of  its  probable  position  we 
have  already  spoken  when  describing  the  cities  of  Ephraim. 
Its  wild  and  secluded  character  may  have  had  peculiar  attrac- 
tion for  the  old  warrior,  who  needed  a  calm  resting-place  for 
his  declining  years. 

*  Rev.  vii. 

"^  Josh.  xix.  50  :  "  According  to  the  word  of  the  Lord  they  gave  him  the 
city  which  he  asked." 

3  Like  Kir-heres,  Beth-shemesh,  and  similar  names,  the  appellation  may 
imply  the  worship  of  the  sun  in  these  locsdities. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

RELIGIOUS  ARRANGEMENTS* 

The  cnstom  of  blood-revenge — Homieide  and  murder — Cities  of  refnge— ^ 
Right  of  asylum  ;  how  guarded — The  death  of  the  high  priest — In- 
heritance of  Levi — Cities  with  pasturage  assigned — The  three  families 
of  Ijevites  —  Towns  allotted  to  each  —  Anathoth  —  Distribution  of 
Levites — Trans-Jordanic  tribes  dismissed — They  erect  an  altar  ;  its 
situation — Action  of  Western  Israelites  under  a  misapprehension — The 
matter  explained  and  settled  satisfactorily. 

There  was  still  some  work  to  be  done  before  the  representa- 
tives of  the  tribes  could  be  dismissed  from  Shiloh.  Joshua^ 
always  scrupulously  obedient  to  the  injunctions  of  Moses,  now 
proceeded  to  carry  out  the  law  respecting  the  cities  of  refuge 
which  had  been  already  given  during  the  last  days  of  his  pre- 
decessor.^ This  law  was  directed  to  the  restriction  of  the  rude 
idea  of  justice  which  prevailed  at  that  time,  and. still  prevails, 
in  Eastern  countries  and  in  other  places.  In  accordance  with 
this  idea,  it  was  the  duty  of  kinsmen  to  avenge  the  death  of 
a  relation  by  the  slaughter  of  the  offender  and  his  children. 
Thus  one  murder  rendered  another  necessary,  and  the  feud  of 
blood  might  be  perpetuated  for  many  generations.  This  ini- 
quitous custom  made  no  distinction  between  murder  and  man- 
slaughter and  accidental  homicide;  it  comprised  innocent  and 
guilty  in  one  common  lot,  and  gave  them  over  to  death  with- 
out trial  or  hope  of  reprieve.  Jewish  legislation  endeavoured, 
without  altogether  abolishing  the  system,  to  mitigate  its  harsh- 
ness and  to  remedy  its  defects.     For  the  wilful  murderer  there 

»  Numb.  xxxv„     Comp.  Exod.  xxi.  13  ;  Deut.  xix.  2  flL 


RELIGIOUS   ARRANGEMENTS.  185 

was  no  compassion.  He  was  accursed ;  his  action  was  a  direct 
outrage  against  God,  and  defiled  the  land  till  it  was  purged 
by  his  destruction.  No  money  payment  could  atone  for  such 
crime ;  the  altar  itself  was  no  asylum  in  such  a  case.  But 
unintentional  and  accidental  homicide  was  differently  treated. 
The  cities  of  refuge  were  provided  for  such  cases.  From  the 
number  of  the  towns  to  be  immediately  assigned  to  the 
Levites,  and  therefore  inhabited  by  the  most  inteUigent  and 
religious  part  of  the  community,  three  on  each  side  of  Jordan 
were  selected  in  convenient  situations.  On  the  west  were 
Kedesh-Naphtali  in  the  extreme  north,  Shechem  in  the  centre, 
and  Hebron  on  the  south  ;  on  the  east,  Golan  on  the  north, 
Ramoth  in  Gilead  in  the  middle,  and  Bezer  or  Bosor,  in 
Reuben,  now  Kasur  el  Besheir,  two  miles  south  of  Dibon. 
These  places  were  already  hallowed  by  ancient  usage,  and  very 
probably  possessed  certain  rights  of  asylum.  The  very  name 
of  some  {e.£^.,  Kadesh,  "  holy  ")  implies  sanctity,  and  others, 
as  Hebron  and  Shechem,  were  consecrated  by  the  abode  of 
patriarchs.  The  roads  to  these  sanctuaries  were  to  be  kept 
open  and  in  good  repair,  that  no  unnecessary  hindrance  might 
delay  the  flight  of  the  offender.  The  enactments  respecting 
asylum  were  minute  and  peculiar.  None  of  the  common 
mediaeval  abuses  were  possible  in  the  Jewish  system.  They 
were,  as  we  have  seen,  not  criminals  of  every  kind  who  could 
here  find  protection  ;  the  right  of  asylum  was  restricted  to  one 
class  of  transgressors  ;  and  that  was  surrounded  by  safeguards 
and  limitations  which  rendered  deceit  and  evasion  impractic- 
able. Supposing  the  manslayer  escaped  immediate  death  at 
the  hands  of  the  Goely  the  avenger  of  blood,  and  made  his  way 
safely  to  one  of  the  sanctified  cities,  he  was  secure  for  the 
moment  from  summary  vengeance.  Standing  in  the  place  of 
public  assembly  at  the  gate,  the  refugee  declared  his  cause 
before  the  elders,  showing  where  the  homicide  was  committed, 
and  that  he  was  guiltless  of  malice  and  premeditation.  If  the 
explanation  was  considered  satisfactory,  he  was  received  pro- 
visionally, till  the  avenger  tracked  him  to  his  refuge  and 
demanded  his  surrender.  Upon  this  a  more  formal  investiga- 
tion was  held,  and  he  was  put  upon  his  trial  before  the  congre- 
gation in  the  local  court.  Cleared  of  the  charge  of  murder  by 
this  assembly,  the  fugitive  had  a  residence  assigned  to  him  in 
the  city  whither  he  had  fled,  in  which  he  was  bound  to  reside 


1 86  JOSHUA. 

till  the  death  of  the  ruling  high  priest.  It  was  specially  enacted 
that  he  must  remain  scrupulously  within  these  precincts  ;  if 
found  outside,  his  protection  was  voided ;  he  might  be  put  to 
death  with  impunity.  Thus  even  the  involuntary  homicide  was 
punished  by  a  kind  of  exile  from  his  home,  and  deprivation  of 
the  emoluments  arising  from  his  usual  pursuits.  The  sanctity 
of  human  life  was  thus  confirmed,  and  bloodshed,  though  un- 
premeditated, was  shown  to  be  a  grave  and  serious  matter, 
which  justly  brought  upon  the  offender  many  inconveniences. 
At  the  death  of  the  high  priest  a  general  amnesty  ensued,  and 
the  manslayer  was  at  hberty  to  return  to  his  home  and  resume 
his  occupations  in  perfect  security.  Various  reasons  have  been 
assigned  for  this  particular  regulation.  Some  see  in  it  only  a 
mode  of  interposing  a  salutary  delay,  and  giving  time  for  justice 
to  be  heard  and  passions  to  cool.  But  the  high  priest's  death 
might  occur  directly  after  the  transaction,  and  the  homicide 
would  in  that  case  be  released  immediately.  Nor  was  it  simply 
that  the  decease  of  the  spiritual  ruler  was  an  event  of  such  vast 
national  importance,  that  all  other  deaths  were  forgotten  and 
condoned  in  the  universal  sorrow.  Nor,  again,  was  this  banish- 
ment merely  a  punishment  for  the  carelessness  and  inadvert- 
ence which  had  occasioned  the  fatal  act.  The  import  of  the 
law  was  something  much  deeper.  The  manslayer,  who  had  even 
involuntarily  incurred  the  guilt  of  bloodshed,  must  remain  under 
the  protection  of  the  priests  and  Levites  who  were  appointed 
to  bear  the  iniquity  of  the  children  of  Israel.  The  high  priest 
was  the  head  of  the  theocracy  and  the  representative  of  the 
whole  people ;  on  him,  year  by  year,  were  laid  the  transgressions 
of  all ;  and  while  he  lived,  he  was,  as  it  were,  legally  infected 
with  this  load  of  sin.  At  his  death  this  load  passed  from  him, 
and  he  being  thus  justified,  the  sinners  whom  he  represented 
were  justified  also,  and  the  manslayer  was  released.*  We 
Christians  see  here  an  adumbration  of  the  sacrifice  of  Christ, 
our  great  High  Priest,  whose  death  delivers  from  sin  and 
sets  the  captive  free.  This  beneficent  system  of  asylum  was 
ordained  to  hold  good  not  only  for  actual  Israelites,  but  for 
dependents,  captives,  and  naturalized  foreigners  who  formed  a 
tenth  or  more  of  the  population. 

The  Levites  had  now  to  be  provided  for  in  pursuance  of  the 
commands  of  God  given  to  Moses.'*    It  had  been  impossible  to  do 
*  Bp.  Ellicott  on  Josh.  xx.  6.  *  Numb.  xxxv.  i-8. 


RELIGIOUS   ARRANGEMENTS.  187 

this  till  the  other  tribes  were  settled,  as  the  cities  assigned  to 
the  Levites  were  to  be  within  the  limits  of  the  several  territories 
allotted  to  their  brethren.  They  were  not  to  have  a  separate 
division  of  the  land,;  the  Lord  God  of  Israel  was  to  be  their 
inheritance.    Jacob  had  said  sadly  of  them  and  the  Simeonites  : 

"  I  will  divide  them  in  Jacob, 
And  scatter  them  in  Israel." 

We  have  seen  how  this  sentence  was  fulfilled  in  the  miserable 
decadence  of  Simeon.  In  the  case  of  Levi  the  sentence  was 
modified  by  subsequent  events.  The  faithfulness  of  INIoses, 
and  the  holy  zeal  of  the  tribe  on  the  occasion  of  the  terrible 
apostasy  at  Horeb,'  converted  it  into  a  blessing.  They  were 
indeed  "divided,"  but  this  distribution  was  made  to  conduce 
to  great  spiritual  and  social  benefits.  So  when  the  elders 
presented  themselves  before  Eleazar,  and  Joshua,  and  the 
other  commissioners,  and  claimed  from  them  the  formal 
assignment  of  the  provision  destined  for  them,  the  demand 
was  at  once  complied  with.  The  sacerdotal  and  military  and 
civil  authorities  were  in  full  concert  on  this  as  on  all  other 
occasions,  and  exactly  carried  out  the  precepts  enunciated  in 
the  Book  of  the  Law.  Every  tribe  was  to  make  an  offering 
out  of  its  abundance  by  assigning  some  of  its  cities  to  the 
Levites  ;  towns  to  the  number  of  forty-eight  were  thus  appro- 
priated, being  at  the  rate  of  four  from  each  tribe,  though  this 
was  practically  modified  in  some  cases  by  local  circumstances. 
These  cities  were  not  made  over  absolutely  and  entirely. 
They  remained  in  the  tenure  of  their  original  possessors,  while 
the  Levites  had  the  right  to  domiciles  in  them,  and  to  a  certain 
extent  of  pasture-land  in  the  suburbs.  The  extent  of  this 
allotment  of  meadow  was  accurately  defined,  so  as  to  preclude 
all  chicanery  or  niggardliness.  It  was  to  reach  to  a  thousand 
cubits  from  the  walls,  north,  south,  east,  and  west,  and  to  pre- 
sent a  front  of  not  less  than  two  thousand  cubits,  thus  securing 
about  three  hundred  acres  in  area,  which,  as  the  Levites  did 
not  cultivate  the  land,  would  be  sufficient  for  the  pasturage  of 
their  flocks.  The  four  "  suburbs "  thus  delineated  were  not 
necessarily  continuous  ;  as  long  as  they  conformed  to  the 
enjoined  requirements,  they  might  be  modified  by  the  situation 

*  Exod.  xxxii.  2^  ff. 


1 88  JOSHUA. 

of  the  city  and  the  natural  features  of  the  locality.*  For  their 
further  support  (as  their  duties  forbade  them  to  engage  in 
temporal  pursuits)  the  Levites  received  tithes  from  all  the 
people,  at  the  same  time  themselves  offering  a  tithe  of  their 
revenues  to  the  priests  as  a  recognition  of  their  higher  conse- 
cration. The  catalogue  of  the  Levitical  cities  is  given  in 
Josh,  xxi.,  and,  with  some  variations  and  omissions,  in  i  Chron. 
vi.  54-81.  These  deviations  may  be  accounted  for  by  the 
compilers  having  relied  upon  different  documentary  sources, 
or  by  lapse  of  time,  or  exchanges  or  additions.  Certainly  the 
list  in  our  Book  is  not  a  final  one.  For  instance,  Nob,  which 
we  know  was  a  priestly  city  in  Saul's  time,  is  not  mentioned  at 
all.  In  the  distribution  recourse  was  again  had  to  the  lot,  that 
all  might  be  in  the  hands  of  Providence,  and  all  jealousy  and 
dispute  be  obviated.  The  cities  which  each  tribe  was  to  give 
having  been  determined  by  local  considerations,  the  lot  decided 
to  which  of  the  families  each  should  be  assigned.  The  tribe 
was  divided  into  three  families,  the  Gershonites,  the  Kohathites, 
and  the  Merarites,  of  which  the  Kohathites  held  the  first  rank, 
as  being  the  branch  to  which  belonged  Aaron  and  the  priest- 
hood. Among  these  families  the  forty-eight  cities  were  dis- 
tributed in  the  following  proportions,  viz.,  thirteen  to  the 
Aaronites  or  priests,  ten  to  the  rest  of  the  Kohathites,  thirteen 
to  the  Gershonites,  and  twelve  to  the  Merarites.  The  sons  of 
Aaron  were  first  provided  for,  and  it  was  considered  providen- 
tial that  the  homes  assigned  to  them  fell  within  the  borders  of 
Judah,  Benjamin,  and  Simeon,  in  the  immediate  neighbour- 
hood of  Jerusalem,  the  future  centre  of  the  national  religion,  the 
spot  where  God  would  place  His  name.  It  was,  too,  in  view 
of  future  requirements,  rather  than  from  present  demands,  that 
so  large  a  number  of  towns  were  given  to  the  priests,  though 
doubtless  by  this  time  the  family  had  multiplied  considerably 
and  numbered  some  thousands.  The  cities  also  were  of  small 
size,  and  some  of  them  probably  still  in  the  possession  of  the 
original  inhabitants,  and  are  enumerated  here  before  they  were 
actually  occupied  by  the  sacerdotal  immigrants.  Among  them 
are  Hebron,  Libnah,  Eshtemoa,  Gibeon,  Bethshemesh.  We 
need  not  delay  long  over  these  Levitical  towns.  Most  of  them 
'  The  above  seems  the  simplest  solution  of  the  ditficult  question  of  these 
suburbs  and  pasturages.  The  subject  is  treated  at  some  length  by  Dr. 
Ginsburg  in  Kitto's  "Cyclop."  s.v.  Levites;  but  I  cannot  agree  to  his 
opinion. 


RELIGIOUS  ARRANGEMENTS.  1 89 

have  already  come  to  our  notice  in  the  previous  history  ;  but 
some  few  hitherto  unmentioned  may  be  named.  Of  the  nine 
appropriated  from  the  territory  of  Judah  and  Simeon,  all  have 
been  noticed  before  ;  of  the  four  received  in  the  country  of 
Benjamin,  one  became  celebrated  only  at  a  later  period.  This 
*ras  Anathoth,  whither  the  priest  Abiathar  was  banished  by 
tjolomon  in  punishment  of  his  treasonable  conspiracy  in  favour 
if  Adonijah  ;  here  was  born  the  great  prophet  Jeremiah." 
'The  town,  now  called  Anata,  stands  on  a  broad  ridge  about 
t  iree  miles  north-east  of  Jerusalem  on  the  road  that  crosses  the 
northmost  summit  of  the  range  of  Olivet.  It  was  a  place  of 
some  strength,  surrounded  with  walls,  and  with  fertile 
*•  suburbs "  which  still  show  signs  of  cultivation.  Another 
place  not  hitherto  enumerated  among  the  possessions  of 
Benjamin  is  Almon,  or,  as  it  is  called  in  i  Chron.  vi.  60, 
Alemeth.  It  has  been  identified  with  the  ruins  of  Almit, 
about  a  mile  north-east  of  Anata,  The  rest  of  the  Kohathites, 
that  is,  those  who  were  not  of  the  sacerdotal  order,  had  been 
greatly  diminished  by  the  destruction  incurred  in  the  punish- 
ment of  Korah's  rebellion,^  and  their  wants  were  supplied  by 
the  appropriation  of  ten  cities.  These  were  taken  from  the 
neighbouring  territories,  four  in  Ephraim,  four  in  Dan,  and 
two  in  Western  Manasseh.  Among  these  are  the  well-known 
Shechem,  Gezer,  and  Beth-horon ;  one  called  Kibzaim  is  pro- 
bably Jokmeam  under  another  name.  Others  are  Gibbethon, 
Aijalon,  Tanach,  and  Ibleam.  The  next  lot  fell  to  the 
Gershonites,  who  received  thirteen  cities,  viz.,  two  in  Eastern 
Manasseh,  Golan  in  Bashan,  and  Og's  city  Ashtaroth- 
Karnaim,  four  miles  north  of  Edrei ;  four  in  Issachar  of  no 
importance  ;  four  in  Asher,  among  which  are  Abdon  on  the 
north  of  the  plain  of  Acre,  and  Rehob  not  yet  identified  ;  and 
three  in  Naphtali,  of  which  only  Kedesh  in  Galilee  is  known 
to  fame.  To  the  Merarites  were  assigned  twelve  cities,  viz., 
four  in  Zebulun,  such  as  Jokneam  at  the  eastern  end  of  Carmel, 
and  others  whose  names  greatly  vary  in  manuscripts  and 
versions  ;  four  in  Reuben,  as  Bezer,  just  below  Dibon,  and 
Kedemoth  still  further  south  ;  and  the  same  number  in  Gad, 
of  which  three  are  highly  celebrated,  Ramoth-Gilead, 
Mahanaim,  and  Heshbon. 

Thus  the  Levites  were  dispersed  throughout  Israel,  carrying 
*  I  Kings  ii.  26  ;  Jer.  i.  i.  »  Numb.  xvi.  ;  xxvi.  9  f. 


igo  JOSHUA. 

culture  and  religion  into  every  comer  of  the  land.  Free  from  the 
petty  cares  and  anxieties  of  this  life,  their  temporal  wants  amply 
provided  for,  they  were  able  to  turn  their  attention  to  higher  duties 
and  attend  to  matters  of  national  importance.  In  theory  at  least 
they  were  to  be  standing  witnesses  for  God  among  the  people. 
When  not  engaged  in  performing  the  religious  duties  which 
were  apportioned  among  them,  they  were  the  teachers  of  the 
young,  the  readers,  transcribers,  and  expounders  of  the  Law,  the 
annalists  and  chroniclers  who  preserved  the  memory  of  great 
events  and  distinguished  personages.  They  brought  religion 
into  everyday  life,  mutually  helping  each  other  and  their 
neighbours  to  realize  the  unseen,  and  to  attain  to  the  standard 
of  the  peculiar  people  of  God.  That  this  ideal  was  never 
reached,  and  that  the  benefits  designed  were  never  fully  recog- 
nized and  enjoyed,  is  unhappily  very  true.  But  this  shows 
merely  the  imperfection  that  cleaves  to  all  human  perform- 
ances, and  how  man's  self-will  and  neglect  mar  the  fairest 
projects.  The  wisdom  and  prudence  of  the  design  remain 
unimpaired  by  the  deficiencies  of  the  agents  ;  and  we  may 
trace  the  subsequent  rise  of  the  schools  of  the  prophets,  which 
did  so  much  for  religion  and  produced  such  grand  characters, 
to  this  distribution  of  the  Levites  throughout  the  length  and 
breadth  of  Israel. 

The  distribution  of  the  land  being  now  complete,  and  the 
promises  made  by  God  to  Abraham  and  Moses  being  now  ful- 
filled, no  further  national  enterprise  was  needed  ;  the  work 
that  remained  to  be  accomplished  must  be  undertaken  by  each 
tribe  for  itself.  It  was  time  now  to  dismiss  the  trans-Jordanic 
tribes,  who  had  loyally  kept  their  word,  and  served  with  their 
brethren  during  this  protracted  warfare.  Joshua  therefore 
summons  these  warriors  before  him  at  Shiloh,  warmly  com- 
mends their  self-sacrificing  conduct,  warns  them  that  their 
prosperity  depends  upon  their  continued  obedience  to  "the 
commandment  and  the  law  which  Moses  the  servant  of  the 
Lord  charged"  them,  and  with  a  fervent  blessing  dismisses 
them,  saying,  "  Return  with  much  riches  unto  your  tents,  and 
with  very  much  cattle,  with  silver,  and  with  gold,  and  with 
brass,  and  with  iron,  and  with  very  much  raiment,  and  divide 
the  spoil  of  your  enemies  with  the  brethren  whom  ye  left 
behind."  It  argues  much  for  the  personal  influence  of  Joshua 
and  the  confidence  with  which  he  was  regarded,  that  he  had 


RELIGIOUS    ARRANGEMENTS.  IQI 

succeeded  in  retaining  these  soldiers  with  him  without  a 
murmur  for  so  many  years.  That  they  ha.d  not  long  ago 
insisted  on  returning  to  their  homes  and  occupying  the  cities 
allotted  to  them,  is  a  remarkable  instance  of  disinterested  and 
ready  obedience  of  which  history  affords  few  parallel  examples. 
Thus  solemnly  dismissed,  the  two  tribes  and  a  half  set  out  on 
their  return.  While  still  on  the  west  of  Jordan,  it  occurred  to 
them  that  it  would  be  expedient  to  erect  some  memorial  in  a 
conspicuous  position,  near  the  margin  of  the  river,  which  might 
be  a  witness  of  their  unity  of  faith  with  their  western  brethren, 
of  their  participation  in  the  ordinances  of  worship,  and  of  their 
claim  to  be  regarded  as  one  people  in  spite  of  their  apparent 
isolation.  Accordingly,  ere  they  crossed  the  Jordan,  they  built 
a  huge  monument,  "a  great  altar  to  see  to,"  one  that  was  con- 
spicuous from  a  long  distance,  to  be,  as  they  said,  Ed,  a  witness. 
That  such  memorials,  erected  not  for  sacrificial  purposes,  but  for 
other  considerations,  were  not  uncommon,  we  see  from  previous 
histories.  Thus  Moses,  after  the  defeat  of  the  Amalekites, 
"built  an  altar  and  called  the  name  of  it  Jehovah-nissi,"  and 
Jacob,  on  his  return  from  Padan-aram,  set  up  a  pillar  at  Bethel 
in  remembrance  of  the  vision  there  vouchsafed  to  him.*  The 
position  of  this  altar  erected  by  the  returning  warriors  has  been 
much  disputed.  Josephus^  states  distinctly  that  it  was  on 
the  east  side  of  the  Jordan,  and  at  one  time  Captain  ConderS 
thought  that  the  group  of  menhirs  opposite  es  Salt  in  Mount 
Gilead  was  connected  with  the  memorial  ;  but  there  is  no 
doubt  that  the  Jewish  historian  was  mistaken  in  his  asser- 
tion. Both  the  language  used  and  the  nature  of  the  transaction 
fix  the  site  to  the  western  bank.  The  altar  is  said  (xxii.  ii) 
to  be  built  "in  the  forefront  of  the  land  of  Canaan,  in  the 
region  (circles)  round  about  Jordan,  on  the  side  that  pertaineth 
to  the  children  of  Israel."  If  this  translation  of  the  Hebrew 
holds  good,  as  competent  scholars  admit,  we  can  have  no  hesi- 
tation in  placing  the  altar  upon  the  western  side  of  Jordan. 
Besides,  it  was  necessar}'  for  their  assertion  of  unity  with  their 
brethren,  and  to  keep  alive  their  claim  to  fellowship,  that  their 
"  witness  "  should  stand  in  their  brethren's  territory.  It  would  be 
no  denegation  of  the  isolating  barrier  interposed  by  the  Jordan 
to  raise  such  a  monument  in  their  own  country ;  the  essence  of 

»  Exod.  xvii.  15  ;  Gen.  xxxv.  14.  »  "Ant."  v.  i,  26. 

3  "  Heth  and  Moab,"  177. 


192  JOSHUA. 

the  transaction  was  that  their  hands  should  set  up  the  memorial 
in  the  district  with  which  they  desired  to  hold  the  most  intimate 
relations.  The  Palestine  "explorers  "  ^  consider  that  they  have 
discovered  the  site  of  this  altar  on  the  summit  of  Kurn  Surtabeh, 
a  bold  headland  that  juts  out  in  the  Jordan  valley,  four  miles 
west  of  the  Damieh  ford,  some  twenty  miles  above  Jericho,  on 
the  direct  route  from  Shiloh.  The  ascent  to  this  peak,  which 
like  a  white  bastion  dominates  the  valley  at  a  height  of  2,300 
feet,  is  now  called  TaV  at  abn  Ayd^  which  curiously  revives  the 
Hebrew  name  Ed.  Here  are  huge  remains  of  antique  masonry, 
and  the  spot  is  visible  from  an  immense  distance,  from  Mount 
Ebal,  from  the  hills  round  Gennesaret,  from  the  Dead  Sea  ;  and 
in  later  times,  owing  to  its  conspicuous  position,  it  was  used  as 
a  beacon  station  in  connection  with  a  similar  telegraph  on  the 
Mount  of  Olives.  Remarkably  enough,  there  are  certain 
localities  in  the  immediate  neighbourhood  which  recall  this  use 
of  the  height.  Thus  there  is  one  place  named  Daluk,  "burning," 
another  Wady  en  Nar,  "valley  of  fire,"  and  yet  a  third,  which 
intimates  the  purpose  of  these  signals,  Umm  Hallel,  "mother 
of  new  moon."  News  of  the  novel  proceeding  of  the  dismissed 
tribes  soon  reached  the  Western  Israelites,  and  excited  a  wild 
commotion  amongst  them.  They  were  already  dispersing  to 
their  several  homes,  when  the  intelligence  of  their  brethren's 
apparently  schismatical  action  recalled  them  to  Shiloh.  With- 
out any  command  of  Joshua,  simply  in  their  zeal  for  the  Law, 
whose  provisions  had  been  infringed,  they  gathered  themselves 
together.  What  said  the  Law  given  by  Him  whose  marvellous 
aid  had  enabled  them  to  win  these  late  triumphs,  and  in  grati- 
tude to  whom  they  were  bound  to  enforce  its  enactments.'* 
"Whosoever  there  be  that  offereth  a  burnt-offering  or  sacrifice, 
and  bringeth  it  not  unto  the  door  of  the  tabernacle  of  the  congre- 
gation, to  offer  it  unto  the  Lord  ;  even  that  man  shall  be  cut  off 
from  among  the  people."  "  Unto  the  place  which  the  Lord 
your  God  shall  choose  out  of  all  your  tribes  to  put  His  name 
there,  even  unto  His  habitation  shall  ye  seek,  and  thither  shalt 
thou  come.  .  .  .  Take  heed  that  thou  offer  not  thy  burnt-offering 
in  every  place  that  thou  seest."  And  the  doom  of  any  who  set 
up  strange  worship  was  solemnly  determined  :  "  Thou  shalt 
surely  smite  the  inhabitants  of  that  city  with  the  edge  of  the 
sword,  destroying  it  utterly,  and  all  that  is  therein,  .  .  .  and  it 

*  "  Quarterly  Paper,"  Oct.,  1874  ;  "  Memoirs,"  ii.  308  fF. 


RELIGIOUS  ARRANGEMENTS.  I93 

shall  be  a  heap  for  ever ;  it  shall  not  be  built  again."  ^  By 
erecting  an  alien  altar  the  trans-Jordanic  tribes,  even  if  they 
did  not  degenerate  into  idolatry,  were  aiming  a  blow  at  that 
national  unity  the  preservation  of  which  was  so  essential  to  the 
well-being  of  the  people.  The  one  centre  of  worship,  and  the 
obligation  to  resort  thither  three  times  a  year,  kept  always 
before  their  minds  their  common  origin  and  common  obliga- 
tions, however  far  apart  their  homes  were  fixed.  It  was  obvious 
that  with  a  new  sanctuary  and  another  religious  establishment 
close  at  hand,  the  eastern  tribes  would  ere  long  cease  to  attend 
the  regular  worship  in  Canaan,  and  come  to  regard  themselves 
as  a  separate  and  independent  people.  In  vindication  of  the 
outraged  Law  the  Israelites  prepared  to  make  war  on  their 
misguided  brethren,  either  compelling  them  to  renounce  their 
schismatical  action,  or  ready  to  punish  them  with  the  utmost 
severity  if  they  obstinately  persisted  in  their  error.  What  part 
Joshua  took  in  these  proceedings  does  not  appear.  Possibly  it 
was  owing  to  his  advice  that  nothing  was  done  rashly.  Jealous 
as  he  was  for  the  honour  of  God,  he  would  not  sanction  a  civil 
war  without  the  gravest  and  most  irrefragable  reason.  Before 
taking  fatal  measures  a  strict  examination  should  be  held  in 
accordance  with  the  provisions  of  the  code  which  the  leader 
always  scrupulously  observed,  and  all  due  opportunity  should 
be  afforded  to  the  offenders  for  explanation.  Accordingly, 
there  was  dispatched  a  deputation,  consisting  of  ten  chieftains 
representing  the  western  tribes,  headed  by  the  priest  Phinehas 
himself,  once  more  appearing  as  the  zealous  defender  of  the 
faith,  as  he  had  boldly  punished  the  sinners  at  Shittim,  when 
the  destroying  angel  was  making  havoc  of  the  congregation.^ 
The  envoys  found  the  people  already  in  the  land  of  Gilead  and 
preparing  to  disperse  their  several  ways.  The  remonstrance 
which  they  made  was  forcible  and  dignified.  "  What  trespass," 
they  say  by  the  mouth  of  their  spokesman,  "is  this  that  ye  have 
committed  against  the  God  of  Israel,  to  turn  away  this  day  from 
following  the  Lord,  in  that  ye  have  builded  you  an  altar  to  rebel 
this  day  against  the  Lord .'' "  Then  Phinehas  reminds  them  of 
the  terrible  retribution  which  befell  the  worshippers  of  Baal-Peor, 

*  Lev.  xvii.  8,  9  ;  Deut.  xii.  5,  13  ;  xiii.  12  ff.  The  incident  in  the  text  is 
one  of  those  many  (and  they  are  very  numerous)  intimations  v^'hich  show 
that  the  history  presupposes  the  enactment  of  the  Mosaic  law  and  a  general 
knowledge  of  its  requirements.  *  Numb.  xxv.  7  ff. 

14 


194  JOSHUA.. 

and  intimates  that  there  were  still  among  them  some  who 
hankered  after  the  licentious  orgies  of  idolatry.  He  warns  them 
that  the  sin  of  individuals  is  visited  on  the  whole  community,  as 
they  had  lately  seen  in  the  case  of  Achan,  and  that  the  pros- 
perity of  the  nation  depended  on  the  general  obedience  and 
piety  of  its  members.  And  he  bids  them,  if  they  consider  that 
their  inheritance  is  polluted  by  idol  worship,  and  not  hallowed 
by  the  presence  of  the  Lord,  to  quit  it  altogether,  and  to  find  a 
home  with  their  brethren  in  Canaan,  where  the  sanctuary  was 
securely  established,  and  where  God  visited  His  people.  Any 
sacrifice  would  be  better  than  to  offend  their  gracious  God  by 
an  act  of  flagrant  schism,  v/hich  must  meet  with  condign  punish- 
ment, and  would  be  fraught  with  fatal  consequences  to  the  whole 
nation.  The  inculpated  tribes  at  once  proceeded  to  vindicate 
their  action  and  calmly  to  defend  themselves  from  the  charge 
brought  against  them.  Invoking  God  Himself  to  witness  their 
innocence  and  to  judge  the  integrity  of  their  intentions,  they 
assert  in  the  most  solemn  manner  that  the  altar  which  they  had 
raised  was  not  designed  for  any  kind  of  sacrifice  whatever  ;  far 
be  it  from  them  to  interfere  with  the  unity  of  the  established  wor- 
ship ;  rather,  it  was  for  the  very  purpose  of  preserving  this  unity 
that  they  had  thus  acted.  The  altar  was  a  monument  of  their  con- 
nection with  their  western  brethren  in  faith  and  polity.  Separated 
as  they  were  geographically  from  the  rest  of  Canaan,  they  feared 
that  they  might  be  treated  as  aliens  in  time  to  come,  and  so  they 
erected  this  model  of  the  altar  of  Jehovah  as  a  witness  that 
they  had  the  same  right  to  approach  the  Lord  as  the  other 
tribes,  but,  as  they  repeat  in  emphatic  asseveration,  with  no 
intention  of  using  it  for  sacrificial  purposes.  The  explanation 
so  frankly  and  temperately  offered  was  regarded  as  entirely 
satisfactory.  "This  day,"  said  Phinehas,  "we  know  that  the 
Lord  is  in  the  midst  of  us,  because  ye  have  not  committed  this 
trespass  against  the  Lord  ;  now  have  ye  delivered  the  children 
of  Israel  out  of  the  hand  of  the  Lord,  so  that  they  will  not  be 
chastised  for  your  delinquency."  The  deputies  returned  with 
joy  to  Shiloh,  reporting  to  Joshua  the  favourable  result  of  their 
interference.  All  thought  of  war  was  laid  aside,  and  the  bond 
between  the  various  members  of  the  community  was  only 
strengthened  by  the  temporary  misunderstanding  so  completely 
and  happily  settled.  In  this  transaction  we  see  the  effects  of 
Joshua's  continual  influence,  and  of  the  efforts  which  he  never 


RELIGIOUS  ARRANGEMENTS.  195 

ceased  to  make  towards  national  unity.  A  short  time  sufficed 
to  change  all  this  for  the  worse  ;  but  during  the  period  with 
which  we  are  concerned,  the  people  were  combined  in  one 
desire  to  maintain  unimpaired  their  dependence  upon  Jehovah, 
to  observe  the  laws  which  had  come  down  to  them,  and  at  any 
cost  to  punish  rebellion  against  the  foundation  of  their  national 
life. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

LAST  DAYS. 

The  commonwealth  of  Israel — First  address  of  Joshua— Final  charge  at 
Shecheni— The  people's  response — Ratification  of  the  Covenant — Death 
of  Joshua — His  tomb — Tomb  of  Eleazar. 

The  transactions  narrated  above  were  followed  by  a  period  of 
peace.  Joshua  retired  to  his  house  at  Timnath-serah,  and  for 
some  eighteen  years  we  lose  sight  of  him  altogether,  though  we 
must  believe  that  many  resorted  to  him  for  counsel  and  hung  on 
the  old  warrior's  words  as  he  recounted  the  stirring  incidents 
of  his  long  career,  and  told  how  God  fought  for  Israel.  During 
all  this  period  the  people  were  wholly  engaged  in  settling  them- 
selves in  their  possessions  and  attending  to  their  private  concerns. 
They  were  not  intended  to  be  a  nation  of  warriors,  ever  restlessly 
pressing  forward  to  renewed  conquests,  and  organizing  distant 
expeditions  for  territorial  aggrandisement.  They  had  their  own 
inheritance  given  them  directly  by  the  Lord,  who  was  the 
absolute  owner  of  the  land;  and  this  they  had  to  take  and  retain 
with  watchful  guardianship.  Possessing  only  a  life  interest  in 
the  soil,  they  could  not  dispose  of  their  property  altogether  ;  if 
sold,  it  reverted  to  its  original  owner  in  the  year  of  jubilee. 
Thus  there  was  no  accumulation  of  territory  in  the  hands  of  a 
few  ;  great  wealth  and  great  poverty  were  alike  unknown.  The 
national  life  was  based  on  agriculture  ;  each  little  community 
supplied  its  own  necessaries,  lived  on  the  produce  of  its  fields, 
its  flocks  and  herds,  paid  little  attention  to  manufactures, 
and  felt  no  need  of  commercial  relations  with  aliens  beyond 
its  own  borders.  Each  tribe  was  governed  by  its  own  elders 
and  chiefs,  subject  to  a  committee  of  the  whole  gathered  at  the 
religious  centre  under  the  presidency  of  the  high  priest.     Such 


LAST  DAYS.  197 

was  the  system  certainly  in  the  time  of  Joshua  and   his  im- 
mediate successors — a  republic  under  theocratic  guidance. 

Now  Joshua,  the  most  religious  of  men,  the  dutiful  soldier, 
the  simple  servant  of  Jehovah,  was  profoundly  impressed  with 
the  inviolable  connection  between  national  prosperity  and 
national  piety,  and  being  now  far  advanced  in  years,  and 
knowing  the  temptations  which  would  beset  his  countrymen 
when  he  and  his  contemporaries  were  removed  by  death,  having 
perhaps  seen  some  symptoms  of  an  evil  heart  of  unbelief, 
though  no  overt  rebellion  had  yet  marred  the  obedience  of  the 
chosen  people,  he  uttered  two  farewell  addresses  in  order  to 
warn  them  against  declension,  and  to  encourage  them  to 
continue  in  the  only  safe  way.  We  might  put  into  his  mouth 
the  words  which  St.  Peter  uses  in  his  Second  Epistle  :  "  I  will 
not  be  negligent  to  put  you  always  in  remembrance  of  these 
things,  though  ye  know  them  and  are  established  in  the  truth 
which  is  with  you.  And  I  think  it  right,  as  long  as  I  am  in  this 
tabernacle,  to  stir  you  up  by  putting  you  in  remembrance  ; 
knowing  that  the  putting  off  my  tabernacle  cometh  swiftly. 
Yea,  I  will  give  diligence  that  at  every  time  ye  may  be  able 
after  my  decease  to  call  these  things  to  remembrance."  The 
old  chieftain  first  summons  the  elders  to  his  home  at  Timnath- 
serah,"  where  for  many  years  he  had  been  leading  a  quiet  and 
retired  life,  and  addresses  them  as  persons  of  culture  and 
authority,  who  understand  their  duty  and  are  in  a  position  to 
execute  it.  Relying  largely  on  his  memory  of  the  utterances  of 
his  master  Moses,  using  the  same  arguments,  and  very  often 
employing  the  same  words,  he  reminds  them  of  all  that  God 
has  done  for  them,  attributing  their  marvellous  success  to  its 
true  source  ;  of  his  own  great  part  in  these  events  he  modestly 
says  little ;  but  he  tells  them  that  even  the  places  as  yet  un- 
subdued were  included  in  their  lot  and  had  to  be  gradually 
absorbed ;  and  that  in  rehance  on  Jehovah's  promise  they 
should  go  forth  conquering.  But  the  achievement  of  this  result 
depends  on  their  strict  obedience.  "  Therefore,"  he  says  in  the 
very  terms  used  to  himself  (i.  7),  "  be  ye  very  courageous  to  keep 
and  to  do  all  that  is  written  in  the  book  of  the  law  of  Moses, 

*  The  place  of  assembly  is  not  expressly  mentioned  (ch.  xxiii.),  but  as  the 
last  formal  meeting  was  held  at  Shechem,  this,  which  was  of  a  less  solemn 
character  and  more  restricted  in  numbers,  probably  took  place  in  his  own 
house. 


198  JOSHUA. 

that  ye  turn  not  aside  therefrom  to  the  right  hand,  or  to  the 
left."  They  must  beware  of  associating  with  the  heathen  peoples 
in  their  neighbourhood  or  participating  in  their  idolatries.  God 
had  hitherto  helped  them  because  they  had  been  true  to  Him, 
and  He  would  do  even  greater  things,  if  they  showed  their  love 
to  Him  by  unswerving  obedience.  Then  the  venerable  leader 
utters  a  note  of  warning.  If  they  turn  away  from  their 
dependence  upon  Jehovah,  indulge  in  famihar  intercourse 
with  pagans,  and  intermarry  with  them,  God  will  aid  them  no 
longer  in  their  enterprises  ;  He  will  leave  these  Canaanites  to 
be  a  snare  and  a  trap,  scourges  in  their  sides,  and  thorns  in 
their  eyes,  till  they  perish  from  off  the  good  land  given  for  their 
inheritance.  With  a  touching  allusion  to  his  own  approaching 
end  Joshua  concludes  his  address  by  recalling  the  awful  denun- 
ciations of  Moses,  and  assuring  them  that  as  the  Lord  had 
proved  Himself  faithful  in  conferring  all  the  blessings  which  He 
had  promised,  so  He  would  be  no  less  true  in  punishing 
dereliction  of  duty  by  the  infliction  of  the  tremendous  penalties 
threatened  in  the  Law.^ 

Such  was  the  first  address  of  the  old  servant  of  God  to  the 
companions  of  his  labours,  his  comrades  in  arms,  those  who 
had  the  direction  of  affairs  and  would  have  to  carry  out  the 
Divine  programme  when  death  removed  him  from  the  scene. 
But  his  care  for  his  beloved  countrymen  was  not  even  yet 
satisfied  ;  he  wished  to  leave  them  still  another  legacy,  and  to 
take  a  farewell  of  them  in  a  more  solemn  and  public  manner. 
There  was  danger  in  the  very  prosperity  which  they  enjoyed  ; 
luxury,  indolence,  worldliness  might  naturally  be  fostered  by 
peace  and  plenty  ;  there  was  the  temptation  of  the  seductive 
rites  of  the  licentious  Canaanites  which  made  laxity  and  vice  a 
religious  service  ;  and  there  was  the  human  repugnance  at  law 
and  restrictive  duty,  which  might  rise  to  open  rebellion  when 
the  hand  that  had  so  long  pointed  the  way  was  chilled  in  death. 
So  the  gray-headed  warrior  came  forth  from  his  retirement, 
summoned  all  Israel  to  meet  him  by  their  representatives  at 
Shechem,  and  here,  where  Abraham  had  received  the  promise  of 
the  holy  land,  where  Jacob  had  sanctified  his  house  to  the  service 
of  God,-  where  the  bones  of  Joseph  were  deposited,  where, 
years  before,  the  blessings  and  curses  of  the  Law  had  been 

*  See  Lev.  xxvi.  14  fF.  ;  Deut.  xxviii.-xxx. 
"  Gen.  xii.  7 ;  xxxiii.  18-20 ;  xxxv.  2. 


LAST  DAYS.  1 99 

solemnly  pronounced,  he  gave  his  last  charge  and  bound  the 
people  to  be  faithful  to  the  covenant.  He  spake  as  one  who 
had  the  authority  of  God  for  what  he  said,  prefacing  his  address 
with  the  words  :  "  Thus  saith  the  Lord  God  of  Israel."  He 
recounts  five  great  events  which  displayed  the  gratuitous 
mercies  of  God  to  His  chosen  people.  There  was  the  call  of 
Abraham  from  the  other  side  of  the  Euphrates,  where  his  father 
had  served  false  gods,  and  whence  God  took  him  to  the  land  of 
Canaan,  and  gave  him  posterity  which  in  the  course  of  time 
sojourned  in  Egypt  ;  there  was  the  great  deliverance  from  this 
land  of  bondage  under  the  guidance  of  Moses  and  Aaron, 
attended  with  signs  and  wonders  manifold ;  there  was  the  total 
defeat  of  the  Amorites  on  the  east  of  Jordan,  and  the  strange 
frustration  of  the  machinations  of  Balaam,  so  that  he  who  came 
to  curse  was  constrained  to  bless  ;  there  was  the  miraculous 
passage  across  the  Jordan,  succeeded  by  the  fall  of  the  strong 
city  Jericho  ;  and  lastly  there  was  the  conquest  of  all  the  nations 
of  Canaan,  achieved  not  by  mere  force  of  mortal  arms,  but  by 
the  Lord's  intervention,  who  arrayed  the  powers  of  nature 
against  these  iniquitous  peoples,*  and  who  put  them  in  posses- 
sion of  a  cultivated  land  in  which  they  had  not  laboured, 
vineyards  and  oliveyards  which  they  had  not  planted,  and 
commodious  cities  ready  built  to  their  hand.  Having  due 
regard  to  all  these  mercies,  so  vast,  so  unmerited,  their  plain 
duty  was  to  fear  the  Lord  and  to  serve  Him  in  sincerity  and 
truth.  If,  as  he  feared,  there  were  still  among  them  some  who 
in  secret  clung  to  idolatrous  practices,  he  adjured  them  to  put 
away  their  strange  gods,  and  from  this  time  to  worship  only 
Jehovah  who  had  done  such  wonders  for  them.  No  alternative 
existed  ;  either  they  must  turn  to  the  degraded  idolatry  of  the 
Amorites  and  of  their  early  ancestors  who  knew  not  the  true 
God,  or  they  must  reverence  the  one  Lord  of  heaven  and  earth. 
He  concludes  his  appeal  by  announcing  his  own  inalienable 

*  "  I  sent  the  hcrnet  before  you,  which  drove  them  out  from  before  you," 
Josh.  xxiv.  12,  So  Exod.  xxiii.  28  ;  Deut.  vii.  20  ;  Wisd.  xii.  8,  Districts 
have  ere  now  been  depopulated  by  an  invasion  of  hornets  and  poisonous 
flies  ;  and  though  the  history  makes  no  detailed  mention  of  such  infliction. 
it  is  not  impossible  that  something  of  the  kind  may  have  tended  to  lay  some 
regions  open  to  the  Israelites  without  contest.  !Many  critics,  however, 
consider  that  "the  hornet"  is  a  metaphor  for  the  agony  of  panic  with 
which  the  Canaan ites  received  tidings  of  the  advance  of  the  invaxiing 
Hehrews. 


2O0  JOSHUA: 

choice,  the  choice  of  one  now  on  the  verge  of  the  grave,  whc» 
had  never  swerved  from  his  loyal  devotion  :  "  As  for  me  and 
my  house,  we  will  serve  the  Lord  Jehovah." 

Moved  by  the  earnest  appeal  of  their  venerated  leader,  the 
people  with  one  accord  profess  their  unshaken  devotion  to 
Jehovah,  whose  mercies  just  recounted  they  were  forward  to 
acknowledge  :  "  We  too,  as  thou,  thyself  dost,"  they  say  to  him, 
"'  will  serve  the  Lord  ;  for  He  is  our  God."  But  Joshua  is  not 
satisfied  with  this  impulsive  assertion  of  faith  ;  these  loud  and 
confident  professors  had  not  counted  the  cost  of  the  service 
which  they  assumed ;  in  the  excitement  of  the  moment  they  had 
welcomed  responsibilities  which  they  might  not  be  prepared  to 
meet.  In  the  first  place  the  Lord  is  a  jealous  God,  who  will  not 
consent  to  a  divided  allegiance,  to  be  worshipped  as  one  God 
among  many,  but  will  have  the  entire  devotion  of  His  people 
and  reign  absolute  and  supreme.  In  the  second  place,  He  is  a 
holy  God,  of  purer  eyes  than  to  behold  iniquity,  and  the  law 
which  He  enjoins  is  rigorous  and  severe,,  and  of  no  easy  fulfil- 
ment. Let  them  remember  this,  and  make  no  hasty  vows. 
Did  the  good  old  man,  with  the  prescient  sagacity  of  approach- 
ing death,  forebode  coming  failure,  a  want  of  consistency  in  this 
loudly  expressed  sincerity  ?  No  such  forebodings  affected  the 
people  ;  with  one  voice  they  exclaimed  :  "  Nay,  but  we  will 
serve  the  Lord." 

Then  they  made  their  choice,  and  by  their  public  protestation 
bare  witness  against  themselves  if  they  ever  broke  their  engage- 
ment. As  a  practical  proof  of  sincerity,  Joshua  demanded  that 
they  should  give  up  all  secret  idolatry,  and  put  away  the 
teraphim  and  images,  which,  if  not  actually  worshipped,  might 
at  any  rate  lead  to  superstitious  practices  and  temptation." 
And  a  third  time  the  people  utter  their  solemn  promise  :  "  The 
Lord  our  God  will  we  serve,  and  His  voice  will  we  obey.'* 
Whether  any  general  purging  of  idolatrous  customs,  exhibited 
by  the  burning  or  burying  of  unlawful  images,  followed  this 
repeated  asseveration,  we  know  not.  Joshua  did  all  that  lay  in 
his  power  to  hold  the  people  to  their  engagement.  With  solemn 
ceremonial  he  renev/ed  and  ratified  the  covenant  between  God 
and  Israel,  which  had  been  first  made  at  Sinai,  and  again  in  the 
plains  of  Moab,  on  both  which  occasions  he  had  been  present 

"  The  episode  of  Micah  in  Judg.  xvii.  is  a  proof  of  this.  See  also  Gen. 
xxxi.  19  ;  XXXV.  2  ;  i  Sam.  xix.  13. 


LAST  DAYS.  20I 

and  taken  part  in  the  august  inauguration  ;  he  gave  certain 
definite  directions  concerning  religious  observances,  and  he 
wrote  an  account  of  these  transactions  on  a  papyrus  roll  and 
placed  it  as  an  appendix  to  the  Book  of  the  Law  of  Moses 
which  he  possessed.  Still  further  to  preserve  the  memory  of 
this  signal  occurrence,  he  erected  a  huge  stone  under  the 
venerable  oak  which  grew  in  that  holy  spot,  consecrated  by  so 
many  religious  associations,  and  where  not  improbably  the  altar 
of  Abraham  and  Jacob  was  yet  to  be  seen.  In  explaining  the 
significance  of  this  stone  Joshua  speaks  the  last  words  which 
are  recorded  of  him  :  "  Behold,  this  stone  shall  be  a  witness 
against  us  ;  for  it  hath  heard  all  the  words  of  the  Lord  which  He 
spake  unto  us  ;  it  shall  be  therefore  a  witness  against  you,  lest 
ye  deny  your  God."  With  this  impressive  warning  he  dismissed 
the  assembly,  and  returned  to  his  peaceful  home,  never  again 
to  leave  it  for  more  stirring  scenes.  Nothing,  indeed,  happened 
to  call  him  from  his  retirement.  There  was  no  enemy  to  arouse 
his  old  martial  spirit ;  there  was  no  backsliding  or  rebellion  that 
demanded  his  interference  ;  and  the  influence  of  his  example 
and  instructions  extended  so  deeply  and  so  long,  that  the 
historian  brings  his  book  to  a  close  with  the  happy  words  : 
"  Israel  served  the  Lord  all  the  days  of  Joshua,  and  all  the  days 
of  the  elders  that  outlived  Joshua,  and  had  known  all  the  work 
of  the  Lord,  that  He  had  wrought  for  Israel."  "  Blessed  are 
the  dead  which  die  in  the  Lord,  .  .  .  that  they  may  rest  from ' 
their  labours,  and  their  works  do  follow  them." 

And  now  the  end  came  for  this  servant  of  the  Lord  ;  his 
mission  accomplished,  his  work  of  war  and  peace  ahke  success- 
fully completed,  he  sank  to  rest.  At  the  ripe  age  of  one  hundred 
and  ten  years,  not  so  old  as  his  master  Moses,  but  having 
reached  precisely  the  age  of  Joseph,  Joshua  died.  He  appointed 
no  successor  ;  none  of  his  family  took  his  place  ;  indeed  his 
posterity  is  never  mentioned  in  history,  and  it  is  doubtful  if  he 
left  any  children  to  carry  on  his  name.  But  a  higher  fame  is 
his,  a  more  enduring  memorial  than  any  earthly  family  could 
convey.  On  the  sublime  subject  of  the  typical  character  of  him 
whose  life  we  have  been  tracing  we  shall  say  a  few  words  before 
we  conclude.  Meantime  we  have  to  follow  him  to  his  tomb. 
The  record  runs  :  "  They  buried  him  in  the  border  of  his 
inheritance  in  Timnath-Serah,  which  is  in  the  hill  country  of 
Ephraim,  on  the  north  of  the  mountain  of  Gaash."    The  spot 


202  JOSHUA. 

was  well  known  when  the  account  was  written ;  its  identification 
in  later  times  has  always  been  a  difficulty.  We  do  not  know 
what  is  meant  by  the  hill  Gaash  ("  shaking"),  the  name,  which 
suggests  "  earthquake,"  being  applicable  to  many  places. 
Jerome  seems  to  have  recognized  Timnath-Serah  in  Tibneh,  the 
modern  Thimnathah,  about  five  miles  north-east  of  Lydda  and 
about  double  that  distance  from  Bethel,  where  are  the  ruins  of 
a  great  city  situated  on  two  hills.  On  the  slope  of  one,  now 
called  Deir  ed  Dham,  are  seen  numerous  excavations  very  like 
what  are  termed  the  Tombs  of  the  Kings  at  Jerusalem,  and  in 
these  M.  Guerin  in  the  year  1863  discovered  a  large  number  of 
flint  knives,  such  as,  according  to  the  tradition  mentioned  in  the 
Septuagint,  were  buried  in  Joshua's  sepulchre,^  But  the  Jewish 
and  Samaritan  traditions,  confirmed  lately  by  the  Palestine 
Exploration  committee,  agree  in  fixing  the  site  of  the  tomb  at 
Kefr  Haris  (tne  latter  portion  of  the  name  representing  Heres), 
a  village  five  miles  south-west  of  Shechem  and  seven  north  of 
Shiloh.  The  tomb  which  used  to  be  considered  that  of  Joshua 
is  thus  described  :^  "  Nine  tombs  were  here  observed,  of  which 
five  were  closed  with  rubbish.  The  first  tomb  furthest  west 
(sometimes  called  Joshua's  tomb)  has  a  porch  in  front  of  it 
eleven  feet  high,  twenty-four  feet  long,  ten  feet  ten  inches  broad. 
In  front  of  this  were  two  pilasters  and  two  piers  of  rock  about 
two  feet  square.  The  piers  and  pilasters  are  rudely  cut,  and  not 
square  ;  they  have  capitals  with  a  very  simple  moulding.  The 
fagade  inside  the  tomb  is  remarkable  for  the  number  of  niches 
for  lamps,  arranged  in  rows,  but  not  symmetrically.  There  are 
over  two  hundred  of  these  niches,  and  they  are  all  blackened 
with  smoke.  The  inner  chamber  is  entered  by  a  small  square 
doorway  about  two  feet  two  inches  broad.  The  chamber  within 
is  thirteen  feet  nine  inches  to  the  back,  and  thirteen  feet  six 
inches  broad.  A  bench  or  mastabah  runs  round  the  side  and 
back  walls.  The  height  from  the  bench  to  the  roof  is  six  feet. 
There  are  fifteen  kokim  [tunnels,  recesses],  five  on  each  wall, 
about  six  feet  nine  inches  long,  and  about  two  feet  broad. 
They  are  not  parallel,  but  pointed  outwards  like  a  fan.  They 
are  rudely  cut,  but  have  arched  roofs,  and  are  recessed  to  hold 
a  square  slab  in  front.     The  koka  is  two  feet  nine  inches  high, 

«  Guerin,  "Samarie,"  ii.  90.  f.  ;  "Biblioth.  Sacra,"  1843. 
*  "Memoirs,"   ii.   375.     The  account  is  interesting  as  giving  a  good 
description  of  Jewish  sepulchres. 


LAST   DAYS.  203 

the  slab  recess  three  feet.  The  middle  koka  at  the  back  is  con- 
verted into  a  passage  leading  to  an  inner  and  thus  probably 
more  recent  chamber,  in  which  was  found  a  sort  of  candela- 
brum, with  three  branches  in  yellow  metal  and  very  heavy.  It 
is  a  magnificent  tomb,  evidently  designed  for  some  prince  in 
Israel.  The  presence  of  the  niches,  not  only  in  the  chambers, 
but  also  in  the  vestibule  open  to  the  daylight,  proves  that  it  was 
held  in  the  highest  reverence.  The  tomb  is  of  the  greatest 
antiquity  :  the  pilasters  have  no  other  ornamentation  than  a 
simple  moulding."  It  was  in  this  sepulchre,  as  already  men- 
tioned, that  a  large  number  of  flint  knives  was  found.  Close  by, 
too,  is  a  great  oak-tree  some  forty  feet  high,  called  to  this  day 
Sheikh  et  Teim  ("  The  chief  servant  of  God  "),  and  about  three 
miles  to  the  east  is  a  village  named  Kefr  Ishua  (Joshua's 
village).  Of  the  rival  site  we  have  the  following  account  :  ^ 
"  Kefr  Harisis  an  ordinary  village  on  a  hill  among  olive  groves. 
It  has  on  the  east  of  it  two  sacred  places  resembling  the  other 
Mukams  of  the  country,  inclusive  of  Joseph's  tomb.  One  of 
these  has  the  curious  name  Neby  Kifl  ('Prophet  of  the 
division  by  lot'),  who  is  called  now  'Companion  of  the 
Prophet.'  The  other  is  now  named  Neby  Kulda  or  Kunda, 
possibly  a  corruption  of  Caleb.  May  we  not  under  !he  title 
Kifl  recognize  Joshua,  who  divided  the  inheritance  among  the 
children  of  Israel  ?  It  seems  by  far  the  most  probable  that 
the  place  to  which  Jew  and  Samaritan  both  point  would  be 
the  true  site,  for  it  is  most  striking  to  find  Jews  visiting  and 
venerating  a  place  in  the  country  of  Samaria  ;  yet  in  Samaria 
the  tombs  of  Joseph,  Eleazar,  Phinehas,  Ithamar,  and  Abishua 
are  still  shown  ;  and  if  we  follow  the  indigetious  rather  than  the 
foreign  tradition,  it  is  here  that  we  should  place  the  tomb  of 
Joshua  also." 

The  record,  which  has  guided  us  to  the  final  scene  of  all, 
closes  with  the  statement  that  Eleazar,  the  high  priest,  died  and 
was  buried  in  a  hill  that  pertained  to  his  son  Phinehas  in  the 
territory  of  Ephraim.  Tradition,  which  in  this  case  seems  well 
grounded,  places  the  tomb  of  Eleazar  at  Awertah,  a  village  on 
the  slopes  east  of  the  Plain  of  Shechem.  The  monument  is 
described  as  a  rude  erection  of  masonry  and  plaster,  eighteen 
feet  long  by  fifteen  broad,  standing  in  a  paved  court,  in  which 
grows  a  magnificent  terebinth.^ 

*  "Memoirs,"  ii.  378.  =»  Ibid.  ii.  219,  288  ;  "  Spec.  Pap."  228. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

CHARACTER   AND   WORK. 

Character  of  Joshua  ;  his  faith,  generalship,  unselfishness — The  Book  of 
Joshua  ;  its  age,  origin,  place  in  Canon — Miracles — Typical  character 
of  Joshua  and  his  work. 

Our  task  is  almost  ended.  It  remains  only  to  add  a  few 
remarks  concerning  the  character  of  Joshua,  the  work  which 
he  accomplished,  the  Book  which  is  called  after  him,  and  the 
typical  nature  which  universal  consent  has  assigned  to  his 
name,  his  attributes,  and  his  acts.  The  sketch  required  is 
almost  ready  made  to  our  hand.  A  man  without  affectation  or 
unreality,  simple,  steadfast,  religious,  is  easily  understood,  needs 
no  recondite  analysis. 

From  the  preceding  history  we  gain  a  very  complete  picture 
of  Joshua's  own  character  and  of  the  work  which  he  accom- 
plished. Throughout  he  is  the  fearless  soldier,  the  straight- 
forward leader,  the  simple,  unquestioning  executor  of  the  Divine 
will  ;  and  his  work  is  the  settling  of  Israel  in  the  Promised 
Land,  and  the  assigning  to  the  tribes  their  separate  possessions 
in  such  a  way  as  to  preclude  jealousy  and  dispute.  That  this 
could  not  be  effected  without  much  suffering  and  bloodshed  is 
obvious  ;  and  Joshua,  as  the  agent  of  this  wholesale  extermi- 
nation, has  been  called  cruel  and  pitiless,  and  the  command 
which  he  obeyed  has  been  deemed  immoral  and  utterly  contra- 
dictory to  the  attributes  of  God.  To  such  objections  sufficient 
answer  has  already  been  given,  and  no  more  need  here  be  said. 
But  as  bearing  on  the  character  of  Joshua,  we  may  remark  that 
the  execution  of  this  Divine  vengeance  on  the  sinful  Canaanites 
did  not  brutalize  him  or  his  soldiers.  He  and  they  felt  that 
they  were  simply  instruments   in  inflicting  a  righteous  puni^h- 


CHARACTER   AND  WORK.  205 

ment ;  and  they  carried  out  the  sanguinary  sentence,  not  as 
relishing  the  terrible  performance,  but  simply  as  acting  in 
obedience  to  an  acknowledged  duty.  But  before  this  result 
could  be  obtained,  what  stupendous  difficulties  had  been  met 
and  overcome  J  What  consummate  abilities  Joshua  had  dis- 
played !  He  had  all  the  qualities  of  a  great  general,  rapid 
decision,  unshrinking  firmness,  thorough  knowledge  of  the 
materials  at  his  command,  masterly  estimate  of  every  varying 
situation,  and  the  power  of  winning  the  love  and  confidence  of 
his  soldiers. 

It  was  no  light  task  to  convert  a  mob  of  broken-spirited, 
down-trodden  slaves  into  an  orderly  army.  In  Egypt  the 
Israelites  had  seen  nothing  of  war,  had  had  no  chance  of 
military  experience ;  they  had  to  be  inspired,  animated,  and 
encouraged,  as  well  as  disciplined  and  organized.  Hence  the 
constant  injunction  laid  on  Joshua  was  to  be  bold  and  of  a  good 
courage,  that  his  example  might  lead  the  people  to  display 
confidence  and  fortitude  in  the  face  of  difficulty  and  peril.  It 
was  not  owing  to  any  natural  timidity  in  his  disposition  that 
this  exhortation  was  so  often  repeated;  never  did  his  animal 
or  moral  courage  fail ;  throughout  his  career  no  trace  of  pusil- 
lanimity is  ever  found.  The  bravest  of  men  might  well  have 
had  some  misgiving  as  to  the  success  of  the  enterprise  which 
he  had  to  undertake,  might  well  have  shrunk  from  attempting 
so  great  a  labour  with  such  inefficient  instruments.  And  the 
encouraging  exhortation,  combined  with  the  assurance  of  Divine 
leading  and  support,  kept  him  true  to  his  single  aim,  and 
enabled  him  to  inspire  others  with  the  confidence  which  was 
his  very  life.  In  nothing  is  Joshua's  character  more  conspicuous 
than  in  his  simple  trust  in  the  supernatural  guidance  of  his 
mission.  God  had  ordained  that  certain  operations  should  be 
undertaken,  and  that  certain  things  should  be  effected;  the 
leader,  using  the  means  at  his  command,  and  asking  the  counsel 
of  the  priest,  felt  no  hesitation  as  to  the  result,  knew  that 
success  would  be  sure  to  follow.  This  childlike  faith  is  a  very 
beautiful  trait,  and  led  to  great  results.  It  enhanced  his  natural 
courage  and  sanctified  it  to  noble  issues  ;  it  enabled  him  to 
endure  under  most  adverse  circumstances,  and  to  stand  un- 
moved in  most  perilous  ventures. 

Joshua   is  the   very   Bayard  of    Scripture   heroes,  the    man 
without  fear  and  without  reproach,  one  of  whom  no  disparaging 


2o6  JOSHUA. 

remark  is  ever  made,  one  whose  meat  it  was  to  do  the  will  of 
God.  Modest  and  retiring,  he  never  put  himself  forward,  but 
from  early  years  his  merits  had  been  known  to  Moses,  and  he 
was  immediately  selected  to  lead  the  army  at  the  first  approach 
of  an  enemy.  At  the  awful  interview  on  Sinai  his  courage, 
faith,  and  purity  pointed  him  out  as  suitable  attendant  to  him 
with  whom  God  talked  face  to  face.  Who  more  fit  than  he  to 
reconnoitre  the  Land  of  Promise  to  which  his  longings  turned, 
when  he  alone,  with  one  other,  brought  back  a  report  such 
as  a  warrior  and  a  statesman  and  a  faithful  Israelite  should 
give,  and  when  undaunted  he  opposed  the  angered  congrega- 
tion with  calm  consistency?  Chosen  especially  to  succeed  the 
great  Lawgiver  whose  one  lapse  debarred  him  from  the  country 
of  his  heart's  desire,  Joshua,  "  full  of  the  spirit  of  wisdom,'' 
carried  out  the  Divine  purpose  with  an  energy  and  skill  which 
marked  the  saint,  the  patriot,  and  the  strategist.  The  invasion 
of  Canaan  was  conducted  with  prudence  and  science,  in  a  very 
different  fashion  from  the  rash  and  ill-advised  attempt  made 
on  the  south  frontier  some  forty  years  previously.  By  Joshua's 
skilful  tactics  the  strong  positions  of  the  lower  part  of  Canaan 
were  taken  in  reverse  and  rendered  practically  useless  ;  with  a 
basis  of  operations  secured,  he  effectually  separated  the  two 
divisions  of  Canaan,  and  acting  with  all  his  forces  on  isolated 
districts,  speedily  subjected  one  half  of  the  country  already  de- 
moralized by  Egyptian  raids,  and  unable  to  combine  in  any 
effectual  opposition.  The  reduction  of  the  north  was  effected 
by  the  celerity  of  movements  which  neutralized  the  effects  of 
numerical  superiority  and  better  arms.  In  these  operations 
we  recognize  the  prompt  and  keen-sighted  leader,  the  consum- 
mate general,  the  valiant  soldier  ;  but  we  cannot  fail  also  to  ac- 
knowledge the  faith  in  the  unseen,  the  abiding  consciousness  of 
a  high  controlling  hand,  which  inspired  every  enterprise  and 
secured  its  success. 

Joshua  was  a  soldier,  an  ideal  soldier,  but  he  was  something 
more  ;  he  has  other  claims  on  our  love  and  veneration.  When 
his  martial  labours  were  accomplished,  he  sought  no  pre-emi- 
nence, he  set  up  no  mihtary  despotism,  he  shrunk  from  un- 
necessary responsibility,  he  was  content  to  share  his  authority 
with  others.  In  the  distribution  of  the  conquered  land  he  acted 
in  subordination  to  the  high  priest  and  in  concert  with  the 
elders  of  the  tribes.     He  sought  not  to  found  a  family  ;  he  was 


CHARACTER  AND  WORK.  207 

the  last  to  receive  an  inheritance ;  with  a  rare  unselfishness  he 
took  for  his  own  possession  a  spot,  little  regarded,  rugged, 
unfruitful.  There  was  no  self-assertion,  no  pride,  no  presump- 
tion ;  his  victories  were  referred  to  God  as  the  giver  ;  for  them 
he  claimed  no  reward  and  no  thanks  at  the  hands  of  his 
countrymen.  When  he  is  jealous  it  is  for  the  honour  of  God 
or  his  master  Moses,  never  for  himself.  Inflexibly  just,  he 
exacts  the  full  penalty  from  the  miserable  Achan,  yet,  tender 
even  in  his  severity,  he  calls  him  "  son."  He  is  faithful  to  the 
crafty  Gibeonites ;  he  is  never  partial,  never  imperious  ;  gentle 
and  strong,  firm  and  loving,  conscious  of  power,  yet,  clothed 
with  humility,  he  is  the  most  perfect  representative  of  the 
religious  leader,  the  theocratic  general,  the  guileless  Israelite. 

Of  his  literary  abilities  we  have  no  certain  criteria  on  which  to 
form  an  opinion.  We  know  that  Moses  entrusted  to  his  care  the 
record  of  certain  important  transactions,  and  that  he  himself  pre- 
served the  memorials  of  some  proceedings  in  which  he  bore  the 
chief  part.  But  the  book  which  bears  the  name  of  Joshua  is 
not  so  called  because  he  was  its  author,  but  because  it  is  wholly 
occupied  with  the  record  of  his  acts  and  sayings.  It  is  true 
that  in  the  last  chapter  we  find  the  sentence  :  "Joshua  wrote 
these  words  in  the  book  of  the  law  of  God,"  and  some  have 
thought  that  it  applies  to  the  whole  of  the  preceding  work, 
comparing  it  with  some  other  statements  of  a  similar  nature, 
e.g.  :  "  Moses  wrote  this  law,  and  delivered  it  unto  the  priests, 
the  sons  of  Levi,  which  bare  the  ark  of  the  covenant  of  the 
Lord,  and  unto  all  the  elders  of  Israel  "  (Deut.  xxxi.  9).  "The 
Lord  said  unto  Moses,  Write  this  for  a  memorial  in  the  book, 
and  rehearse  it  in  the  ears  of  Joshua''  (Exod.  xvii.  14).  "Samuel 
told  the  people  the  manner  of  the  kingdom,  and  wrote  it  in  the 
book,  and  laid  it  up  before  the  Lord  "  (i  Sam.  x.  25).  But  these 
expressions  seem  to  indicate  that  these  histories  are  a  continua- 
tion of  that  of  Moses,  and  that  the  words  apply  simply  to  the 
passages  to  which  they  are  appended.  This  is  certainly  true  of 
the  verse  quoted  above  from  Joshua,  which  states  merely  that 
Joshua  committed  to  writing  the  account  of  the  renewal  of  the 
covenant,  and  inserted  it  in  the  Book  of  the  Law  which  he  had 
received  from  Moses.  Primitive  and  Jewish  tradition  alike  claim 
the  authorship  of  this  book  for  Joshua,  except,  of  course,  the 
few  verses  which  record  his  death  and  burial.  Modern  criticism 
is  generally  opposed  to  this  view,  or  holds  it  only  partially,  but 


2o8  JOSHUA. 

certainly  cannot  agree  as  to  the  possible  author,  the  suggested 
writers  ranging  from  Eleazar  and  Phinehas  or  one  of  the  elders 
that  outlived  Joshua  unto  one  of  the  returned  Babylonish 
captives.  Neologian  critics  find  evidence  of  the  work  of  many- 
different  writers  in  the  book,  and  with  much  ingenuity  apportion 
paragraphs,  verses,  and  expressions  to  some  four  or  five  authors. 
On  investigation  it  appears  that  no  two  of  these  scholars 
agree  in  their  distribution  of  the  parts,  otherwise  old-fashioned 
orthodox  opinion  might  be  overwhelmed  with  an  accumulation 
of  evidence  which  it  could  ill  resist.  As  it  is,  we  may  allow 
that  our  book  is  a  compilation,  edited  by  one  who  lived  very 
near  the  time  of  the  events  narrated,  and  was  fully  acquainted 
with  the  geography  of  the  country  which  he  describes.  Nothing 
in  the  language  of  the  work  militates  against  this  idea.  The 
best  Hebraists  allow  that  the  style  stamps  it  as  of  a  high  anti- 
quity quite  according  with  its  supposed  date.  Then  the  ex- 
actitude of  the  details,  the  careful  report  of  speeches,  the 
revelations  made  to  Joshua,  the  enumeration  of  kings  and  cities, 
the  precise  account  of  the  distribution  of  territory,  point  to  an 
eye-witness  and  contemporary.  And  although  there  are  passages 
and  allusions  which  denote  a  writer  subsequent  to  Joshua  (as, 
for  instance,  the  notice  of  his  death,  and  the  remark  that  "  the 
Jebusites  dwelt  with  the  children  of  Judah  at  Jerusalem  unto 
this  day,"  chap.  xv.  63),  yet  for  the  above  considerations  it 
seems  natural  to  conclude  that  the  bulk  of  the  work  was  com- 
posed under  the  direction  of  Joshua,  and  from  records  supplied 
by  him,  supplemented  after  his  decease  by  some  details  added 
by  one  of  his  successors.  That  it  was  compiled  before  the  age 
of  David  is  confirmed  by  much  internal  evidence.  There  is  an 
entire  absence  of  allusion  to  the  condition  of  Israel  in  later 
days.  There  is  no  token  of  the  reign  of  kings,  or  of  the  division 
of  the  country  into  rival  kingdoms,  throughout  the  book.  The 
oppression  under  the  Canaanites  is  unknown  to  the  writer, 
otherwise  he  could  not  have  spoken  of  the  tributaiy  position 
of  the  inhabitants  of  Gezer  (chap.  xvi.  10).  The  statement 
already  mentioned  that  the  Jebusites  dwelt  with  the  Judahites 
at  Jerusalem  could  only  have  been  made  before  David  took  the 
citadel  ;  the  league  with  the  Gibeonites  had  not  been  broken 
by  Saul  when  our  book  was  written  ;  nor  was  the  temple 
erected.'  In  David's  days  the  Sidonians  would  not  have  been 
*  Josh.  ix.  27. 


CHARACTER  AND   WORK.  209 

Spoken  of  as  doomed  to  extermination  ;  nor  would  Sidon  have 
been  called  "  great,"  had  Tyre,  as  later  it  was,  then  been  the 
capital  of  Phoenicia.^  The  dependence  of  Joshua  upon  the 
Pentateuch  and  the  legislation  of  Moses  is  obvious.  Unless, 
then,  we  accede  to  the  unproved  hypothesis  of  a  post-exilian 
date  for  the  Pentateuch,  we  are  constrained  to  admit  the  cor- 
rectness of  the  position  assigned  to  our  book  in  the  Jewish 
canon.  In  this  arrangement,  as  every  one  knows,  the  Testa- 
ment was  divided  into  three  sections,  called  respectively  the 
Law,  the  Prophets,  and  the  other  writings  or  Hagiographa. 
Joshua  was  placed  at  the  beginning  of  the  second  section, 
and  was  ranked  with  the  "  earlier  prophets,"  which  included 
the  Books  of  Judges,  Samuel,  and  Kings.  Had  it  been  com- 
posed in  the  time  of  Ezra,  as  some  critics  conjecture,  it  would 
surely  have  been  placed  with  the  Chronicles  in  the  third  section 
of  the  Scriptures.  Its  present  situation  is  most  appropriate, 
linking,  as  it  does,  what  precedes  and  what  follows,  showing 
how  Jehovah  fulfilled  His  promises  to  the  patriarchs,  and  dis- 
played His  grace,  power,  and  mercy  to  His  chosen  people.  It 
is  not  a  melange  composed  of  incongruous  elem.ents,  but  a 
systematic  work  with  a  definite  object  from  which  the  author 
never  swerves.  Following  closely  the  course  of  events,  he 
seems  at  times  to  have  sacrificed  the  logical  to  the  chronological 
sequence,  and  to  have  left  unexplained  some  matters  which 
needed  further  elucidation  ;  but  this  is  simply  an  evidence  of 
a  contemporary  writer,  who  recognized  no  necessity  for  adding 
illustrative  matter,  and  who  purposed  to  assume  the  part  of  a 
simple  annalist,  not  that  of  a  philosophical  historian.  The 
claims  of  the  book  to  a  place  in  the  canon  of  Scripture  have 
never  been  seriously  disputed  ;  allusions  in  other  parts  of  the 
Bible  confirm  its  general  acceptance.  In  the  Psalms  reference  is 
made  not  only  to  the  Exodus,  but  also  to  the  events  which 
succeeded,  when  Jordan  was  driven  back,  and  the  heathen  were 
expelled  by  the  hand  of  the  Lord,  and  the  tribes  received  their 
inheritance.^  The  prophets  adumbrate  the  victory  at  Gibeon, 
and  the  indignation  poured  forth  on  the  heathen. 3  And  in  the 
New  Testament  St.  Stephen  speaks  of  the  uprooting  of  the 
Canaanites  and  the  introduction  of  the  ark,  St  James  applauds 
the  deed  of  Rahab  the  harlot,  and  the  writer  of  the  Epistle 

*  Josh.  xii.  8  ;  xiii.  4-6.  "  Pss.  xliv.  ;  Ixviii.  ;  Ixxviii, 

3  Isa.  xxviii.  21  ;  Hab.  iii.  12. 

15 


2IO  JOSHUA, 

to  the  Hebrews,  together  with  the  mention  of  this  woman,  speaks 
of  the  fall  of  Jericho  and  of  "  the  rest "  which  Joshua  gave  to 
the  people." 

The  miraculous  element  in  the  book  has  no  difficulty  for  the 
Christian  believer.  He  who  believes  in  the  stupendous  miracle 
of  the  Incarnation,  God  assuming  man's  nature,  is  satisfied  that 
God  interferes  in  man's  concerns,  and  is  not  staggered  by  any 
display  of  omnipotence  in  the  furtherance  of  immeasurable 
designs.  Once  admit  the  antecedent  probability  of  miracles 
and  the  credibility  of  the  history  in  which  they  are  recounted, 
the  details  and  extent  of  the  wonder  are  comparatively  unim- 
portant. At  the  same  time,  it  is  sometimes  possible  to  deter- 
mine the  secondary  causes  of  miracles  detailed,  and  it  is  always 
advisable  carefully  to  scrutinize  the  reports  of  them,  that  the 
faith  of  weaker  brethren  may  not  have  laid  upon  them  a 
burden  greater  than  they  are  able  to  bear.  One  is  led  naturally 
to  expect  Divine  interpositions  at  this  crisis  of  the  world's 
history  ;  they  do  not  stand  alone  ;  they  are  the  sequel  of  the 
providential  events  which  happened  in  Egypt  and  the  wilder- 
ness ;  they  all  tended  to  further  the  plan  for  the  preservation  of 
the  pure  worship  of  God,  and  to  prepare  the  way  for  the 
Gospel.  If  Israel,  the  chosen  depository  of  God's  law  and 
will,  was  to  conquer  and  retain  Canaan,  it  could  only  do  so  by 
the  special  assistance  of  heavenly  powers  ;  and  it  would  be 
a  matter  of  surprise  if  some  record  of  these  interferences  had 
not  existed.  The  antecedent  expectation  of  miraculous  occur- 
rences is  fulfilled  by  the  simple  statements  in  our  book.  It  was 
necessary  to  demonstrate  to  the  heathen  that  Jehovah  was  the 
one  Lord  of  heaven  and  earth,  and  that  the  Israelites  were  His 
special  care  ;  it  was  necessary  that  the  latter  should  recognize 
these  great  truths;  for  both  tl  ese  purposes  miracles  were 
requisite  ;  attestation  was  to  be  obtained  by  certain  occurrences 
transcending  the  customary  operations  of  nature,  which  must 
be  acknowledged  to  be  providential.  The  revelations  of  God 
in  these  early  times  introduced  marvellous  changes  in  the 
moral  and  spiritual  world  ;  is  it  altogether  strange  and  incon- 
ceivable that  such  novelties  should  be  accompanied  and 
confirmed  by  signs  and  portents  in  the  world  of  matter  ?  A 
primitive  age  takes  delight  in  the  marvellous,  and  is  largely 
influenced  by  an  appeal  to  the  senses  ;  faith  in  the  Unseen  is  of 
'  Acts  vii.  45  ;  James  ii.  25  ;  Hcb.  iv.  8  ;  xi.  30  ff. 


CHARACTER  AND  WORK.  211 

slow  growth,  and  needs  external  support.  And  God  con- 
descends to  man's  infirmity  and  dulness  of  apprehension  by 
affording  palpable  evidence  of  His  intervention,  and  giving 
extraordinary  aids  to  feeble  belief.  If  we  put  any  trust  in  the 
statements  of  Scripture,  miraculous  interferences  have  marked 
all  God's  dealings  with  His  chosen  people  under  the  Law  and 
under  the  Gospel  alike.  However  they  are  to  be  explained,  or 
whether  for  their  explanation  we  must  be  content  to  wait,  they 
are  bound  up  indissolubly  with  the  history.  The  same  evidence 
attests  both.  We  may  say  that  the  observers  were  mistaken 
in  their  estimation  of  the  wonder,  but  there  can  be  no  reason- 
able doubt  that  the  circumstances  which  led  to,  and  which 
followed  the  occurrence,  and  the  contemporary  opinion  which 
saw  therein  a  miraculous  intervention,  are  truthfully  recorded. 
If  we  reject  the  miracle,  we  must  do  so  on  other  grounds  than 
that  of  insufficient  testimony,  or  we  must  consider  the  whole 
history  fabulous. 

This  sketch  would  not  be  complete  without  some  brief  notice 
of  the  typical  character  of  Joshua  and  his  work.  Holy  Scripture 
itself  suggests  such  treatment,^  and  the  subject  has  exercised 
many  pens,  notably  that  of  Bishop  Pearson  in  his  Exposition 
of  the  Creed,  an  epitome  of  whose  argument  may  be  found  in 
many  English  commentaries.  Many  commentators  see  also  in 
the  history  contained  in  the  Book  of  Joshua  an  allegory  of  the 
life  of  individual  Christians,  and  the  struggles  and  fortunes  of 
the  Christian  Church.  We  must  be  content  to  indicate  without 
developing  this  view.  On  Joshua  as  a  type  thus  much  may  be 
here  said.  The  mystery  begins  with  the  very  name  of  Joshua, 
first  called  Hoshea,  "  Salvation,"  and  then  Jehoshua,  or  Joshua, 
"  God's  Salvation,"  or  "  Jehovah  the  Saviour."  In  the  Septua- 
gint  he  is  called  Jesus,  and  this  name  is  reproduced  in  the  Acts 
(vii.  45)  and  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  (iii.  8).  The 
appellation  was  confirmed  by  his  acts  ;  as  the  Son  of  Sirach 
says  :  ^  "  According  to  his  name  he  was  made  great  for  the 
saving  of  the  elect  of  God."  He  by  the  help  of  the  Lord  led  his 
people  into  the  promised  land,  preserved  them  from  innumer- 
able dangers,  gave  them  victory  over  their  enemies,  put  them  in 
possession  of  their  inheritance.  Jesus  was  He  who  was  to  save 
His  people  from  their  sins,  and  to  bring  them  into  the  heavenly 
Canaan,  preparing  eternal  mansions  for  them ;  He  was  to 
*  Acts  vii.  45  ;  Heb.  iv.  8.  '  Ecclus.  xlvi.  i. 


212  JOSHUA. 

destroy  the  works  of  the  devil,  to  overcome  the  world,  and  to 
reward  those  who  have  faithfully  warred  under  his  banner. 
What  Moses  could  not  do,  Joshua  effected.  Moses  and  Aaron 
brought  the  people  out  of  Egypt,  but  left  them  in  the  wilder- 
ness, could  not  settle  them  in  Canaan.  This  was  reserved 
for  Joshua.  Thus  was  prefigured  the  imperfection  of  the  Law 
which  could  not  make  its  followers  perfect,  even  as  it  is  said  : 
•'  The  law  was  given  by  Moses,  but  grace  and  truth  came  by 
Jesus  Christ."  *  Mosaic  legislation  separated  the  Israelites 
from  the  nations  ;  but  Jesus  brings  the  true  Israel  into  close 
and  peculiar  relation  with  God.  It  was  in  obedience  to  the 
Law  Joshua  conquered  Canaan  ;  so  Christ  came  not  to 
destroy  the  Law,  but  to  fulfil  it.  Joshua  smote  the  Amalekites 
and  subdued  the  Canaanites,  thus  opening  the  passage  to  the 
land  and  giving  possession  of  it  ;  so  Jesus  goes  before  us  as 
Prince  and  Saviour,  subduing  our  spiritual  enemies,  and  giving 
us  possession  of  eternal  life.  The  long  wanderings  of  the 
desert  were  terminated  by  the  rest  in  the  land  of  promise  ;  so 
the  only  rest  which  the  Christian  knows  is  found  under  the 
leading  of  Jesus,  under  whom  "  there  remaineth  a  rest  for  the 
people  of  God."  Regarding  this  life  as  a  pilgrimage,  with  its 
sojourn  in  Egypt,  and  the  desert,  and  Canaan,  we  may  look  on 
the  passage  of  the  Jordan  as  the  valley  of  death  which  opens 
the  way  to  a  better  world.  And  if  in  these  general  matters  the 
typical  character  of  Joshua's  work  is  plainly  seen,  it  is  no  less 
wonderfully  clear  in  its  varied  details.  As  he  began  his  life  in 
hardship  and  bondage  in  Egypt,  sharing  the  lot  of  his  brethren, 
so  Jesus  took  upon  Him  the  form  of  a  servant,  and  suffered  the 
privations  of  the  poorest.  Moses  took  Joshua  with  him  up  into 
the  mount,  for  without  Jesus,  in  whom  "  are  hid  all  the  treasures 
of  wisdom  and  knowledge,"  it  is  impossible  to  approach  the 
presence  of  God  or  to  look  into  the  secrets  of  heaven.  On  the 
banks  of  the  Jordan  God  began  to  "  magnify  Joshua,"  and  to 
point  him  out  to  Israel  as  their  ordained  leader ;  at  the  same 
river  Jesus  began  His  office,  and  was  anointed  with  the  Holy 
Spirit,  when  the  voice  of  the  Father  proclaimed,  "  This  is  My 
beloved  Son,  in  whom  I  am  well  pleased."  As  Joshua  directed 
that  from  the  bed  of  Jordan  twelve  stones  should  be  taken  and 
set  up  as  a  memorial  of  deliverance,  so  after  His  baptism  Jesus 
chose  twelve  apostles  as  the  foundation-stones  of  His  Church. 
*  John  i.  17. 


CHARACTER  AND  WORK.  213 

The  command  of  circumcision  was  given  not  to  Moses,  but  to 
his  successor — an  intimation  that  Jesus  is  the  true  circumciser, 
the  author  of  the  circumcision  of  the  heart,  in  putting  off  the 
body  of  the  sins  of  the  flesh.  The  circumcision  following  im- 
mediately upon  the  passage  of  the  Jordan  may  signify  the  life 
of  justification  dependent  on  the  resurrection  of  Christ.  The 
saving  of  Rahab  the  harlot  adumbrates  the  great  saying  of 
Jesus  :  "  Verily  I  say  unto  you,  that  the  publicans  and  harlots 
go  into  the  kingdom  of  God  before  you."  Joshua  assigns  the 
people  their  inheritance  in  the  promised  land,  but  warns  them 
that  they  must  maintain  their  possessions  by  watchfulness  and 
valour  ;  Jesus  brings  His  followers  into  the  spiritual  Canaan, 
the  Church,  but  tells  them  that  foes  are  left  to  try  them,  and 
bids  them  fight  manfully  against  sin,  the  world,  and  the  devil. 
Under  Moses  there  are  murmurings,  disputes,  controversies, 
for  "the  law  made  nothing  perfect;"  under  Joshua  all  is 
harmony,  confidence,  triumph,  for  "by  one  offering  Jesus  hath 
perfected  for  ever  them  that  are  sanctified."  '  Lastly,  before  he 
died,  Joshua  gathered  the  heads  of  the  nation  around  him,  por- 
trayed the  nature  of  the  work  before  them,  and  their  high 
destiny  if  they  remained  faithful  to  Jehovah  ;  Jesus,  before  He 
left  the  earth,  assembled  the  representatives  of  the  true  Israel, 
gave  them  their  work,  showed  them  the  source  of  their  strength, 
saying  :  "  Go  ye  and  make  disciples  of  all  the  nations,  baptizing 
them  into  the  name  of  the  Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  ;  teaching  them  to  observe  all  things  whatsoever 
I  have  commanded  you  ;  and  lo,  I  am  with  you  alway,  even 
unto  the  end  of  the  world." 

'  Heb.  vii.  19  ;  x.  14  ;  "  Pulp.  Comment." 


GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX 


Abel-Shittim,  p.  i8 

Achor,  Valley  of,  57,  144 

Achsaph,  loi,  173 

Achzib,  172 

Acre,  16 

Adam,  28 

Adami,  176 

Adullam,  iii  f.,  146 

Ai,  50,  60 

Ajalon,  179 

Almon,   189 

Ammonites,  108 

Amorites,  9 

Anab,  106 

Anakim,  106 

Anathoth,  189 

Aphek,  115,  173 

Arad,  11 1 

Argob,  136  f. 

Arnon,  108,  123  f. 

Aroer,  123 

Ashdod,  147 

Asher,  Territory  of,  171  f. 

Ashkelon,  97 

Ashtaroth,  138,  189 

Aujeh,  180 

Azekah,  87 

Baal-gad,  109  f. 

Banias,  109  f. 

Bashan, 135 

Beeroth,  73 

Beersheba,  145  f. 

Belka,  120 

Benjamin,  Territory  of,  160  f. 

Beth-arabah,  162 

Beth-aram,  131 

Beth-dagon,  172 

Bethel,  50,  51,  60 

Beth-hogla,  144 

Beth-horon,  80 

Bethlehem,  148,  167 

Bcth-marcaboth,  165 


Beth-nimrah,  131 
Beth-peor,  8,  124 
Beth-shan,  156 
Beth-shemesh,  144,  170,  179 
Beth-tappuah,  147 
Beth-zur,  148 
Bezer,  185 
Bozrah,  109 

Cabul,  173 

Callirrhoe,  8,  120  f. 

Canaan,  Canaanites,  8,  9,  13  ff, 

Carchemish,  8 

Carmel,  the  hill,  17,  95,  113,  156 

Carmel,  the  town,  148 

Chephirah,  74 

Chinnereth,  177 

Chisloth-Tabor,  166 

Crocodile  River,  171 

Dan,  City,  180  f. 

Dan,  Territory  of,  178  f. 

Debir,  94  f.,  106,  130,  142 

Dibon, 122 

Dor,  101 

Eastern  Palestine,  108  f. 

Ebal,  65  f. 

Ed,  191  f. 

Edrei,  137 

Eglon,  93 

Egypt,  Torrent  of,  143  f. 

Ekron,  88 

Elealeh,  122 

Endor,  157 

Engannim,  170 

Engedi,  149 

Enrogel,  144 

Enshemesh,  144 

Ephraim,  Territory  of,  153  ff. 

Ephraim,  or  Ephron,  162 

Esdraelon,  Plain  of,  17,  156,  168  f. 

Eshtemoh,  147 


2l6 


GEOGRAPHICAL   INDEX. 


GAASH,  20I  f. 

Gad,  Territory  of,  125  ff.,  132 

Galilee,   178 

Gath-hepher,  167 

Gaulanitis,  138 

Gaza,  93,  95,  96 

Geba,  162 

Gebal,  115 

Geder,  11 1,  148 

Gennesarelh,  176  f. 

Gergesa,  9 

Gerizim,  65  f. 

Geshur,  it6 

Geshurites,  114 

Gezer,  93 

Gibbethon,  180 

Gibeon,  72 

Giblites,  115 

Gilboa,  17 

Gilead,  108.  126 

Gilgal,  30,  33,  71,  113,  155 

Giloh,  147 

Girgashites,  9,  tj 

Golan,  134  f.,  139 

Goshen,  96 

Halak,  iro 

Halhul,  148 

Hamath,  115 

Hammath,  or  Hamnion,  172 

Haramath,  or  Eminaus,  177 

Hannathon,  167 

Hauran,  The,  135 

Haltin,  Horns  of.  100 

Havoth-Jair,  139 

Hazar-suzah,  165 

Hazor,  98  ff. 

Hebron,  93  f. 

Helkuth,  172 

Hermon,  6  s 

Heshbon,  122 

Hittites.  8 

Hivites,  9 

Hormah,  iii,  165 

Ibleam,  157 

Iphtah-el,  167 

Irpeel,  163 

Issachar,  Territory  of,  168  f. 

Jabbok,  127 
Jabesh-Gilead,  130 
Jacob's  Tomb  and  Well,  66 
Jahaza,  122 
Japhia,  167 
Japho,  or  Joppa,  145 
Jarmuk,  125  f. 
Tarnmlh,  78,  146 


Jattir,  147 
Jebel  Osha,  127 
Jebusites,  9 
jehud,  180 
]  ericho,  19  ff. ,  37,  45 
Jerusalem,  78,  144 
Jeshimon,  148 
jezreel,  148,  169 
Jokneam,  113,  166,  189 
Jordan,  15,  26 
Judah,  Territory  of,  143  f. 
J  udah  at  J  ordan ,  1 76 

Kabzeel,  145 

Kadesh-barnea,  96,  iii,  145 

Kanah,  153.  173 

Kedesh,  8,  102  f. ,  177 

Keilah,  147 

Kerioth-Hezron,  145 

Kirjathaim,  124 

Kirjath-Baal,  148 

Kirjath-Jearim,  73,  148 
!    Kirjath-sepher,  142 
;    Kishon,  171 

I    Lachish,  91 
Laish,  180  f. 
Libnah,  90  f.,  146 
Lydda,  i8o 

.    Maachah.  116 
Maaleh-Acrabbim,  143 
Machpelah,  94 
Madon,  100 
Mahanaim,  128  f. 
Makkedah,  87  f. 
Manasseh,  Eastern  Territory  of, 

133  ff- 
Manasseh,  Western  Territory  of, 

151  ff. 
Maon,  147 
Maresha,  147 
Mearah,  114 
Medeba,  122 
Megiddo,  112,  157 
Mejarkon,  180 
Merom,  gis 
Migdal-el,  177 
Minyeh,  8 
Misheal,  175 
Mishor,  120 

Mizpeh,  72,  104,  146,  163 
Misrephoth-Maim,  104 
Moab,  Moabites,  108,  120 
Moladah,  165 

Nabalus.  Nrapolis,  6s 


GEOGRAPHICAL  INDEX. 


217 


Nain,  157 

Naphtali,  Territory  of,  175  f, 

Nebo,  123 

Negeb,  17,  95.  ^45 

Nephfoah,  144 

Nobah,  138 

Ophrah,  157,  162 

Palestine,  15  ff.,  116 

Penuel,  129 

Perizzites,  9 

Phoenicia,  Phoenicians,  8 

Philistia,  Philistines,  16,  18 

Pisgah,  123 

QUARANTANIA,  24  f. 

Rabbath  Ammon,  130 
Ramah,  163 
Ramath,  165 
Ramoth-Mizpeh,  129 
Ramoth-Gilead,  129 
Rephaim,  Plain  of,  144 
Reuben,  Territory  of,  119  ff. 
Rhinokorura,    River    of     Egypt, 

143 
Rimmon,  167 

Safed,  99 
Salcah,  138 
Salt,  Valley  of,  149 
Samaria,  17 
Sarepta,  104 
Sarid,  166 
Sharon,  16 
Sheba,  164 
Shechem,  17,  63  ff. 


Shephelah,  18,  95,  146 

Shiloh,  153  f. 

Shimron,  lor 

Siiittim,  18,  19 

Shochoh,  87.  146 

Shunem,  170 

Sibmah,  124 

Sihor,  or  Shihor-Libnath,  171 

Simeon,  Inheritance  of,  163  f. 

Succoth,  129 

Surtabeh,  153,  192 

Taanach,  112,  157 
Tabor,  17 
Tappuah,  147 
Tiberias,  176 
Timnah,  144,  148 
Timnath-serah,  155,  201  f, 
Tirzah,  113 
Tyre,  173 
Tzela,  163 

Wauy  Kelt,  50 
Wady  Suvveinit,  50 

Zaanannim,  176 

Zaphon,  131 

Zaretan,  Zarthan,  28 

Zareth-shahar,  124 

Zebulun,  Territory  of,  166  t 

Zelah,  163 

Zephath,  i.q.,  Hormah 

Ziddim,  176 

Zidon,  104,  173 

Ziklag,  146,  165 

Ziph,  148 

Zoreah,  146 


